Transport in Cells GCSE Biology

The basics in transport

• For any organism to function properly, it needs to exchange substances such as food
molecules and waste products between itself and its environment

• This exchange of substances occurs across the cell membrane

• There are three transport processes that living organisms use for
exchange: diffusion, osmosis and active transport
The basics of diffusion

• Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or particles

of a gas, resulting in a net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration

• This means:

• Particles in a solution or a gas are always moving about randomly

• If there happen to be more particles in one area/region, then there tends to be

an overall (net) movement of particles from this region of higher concentration to a
region where there are fewer particles (an area of lower concentration)
Diagram - Diffusion of perfume
particles through a room is one of
the simplest examples of diffusion
Diffusion

• Diffusion is an entirely passive process; the movement of particles in a fluid is

dependent on how much kinetic energy they have
• The higher the temperature, the more kinetic energy particles have and therefore the faster they can move by diffusion
Diffusion in living organisms

• All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane which separates the inside of the cell from
its outside environment

• Substances have to be able to diffuse through the cell membrane to enter or exit the cell
unaided (there are other ways for substances to get in)
Diffusion in living organisms

• Not all substances are able to diffuse across the cell membrane which is why it is
described as being ‘partially permeable’; some substances are able to enter or leave the
cell whilst others aren’t
• For example, oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse across the cell membrane during gas exchange whereas the
carbohydrate starch cannot (it’s too big)
Phospholipid bilayer - The
cell membrane acts as a
barrier across which
substances have to be able to
move to get into or out of a
cell
Diffusion – examples

• Examples of substances that enter cells by diffusion:

• Oxygen must diffuse into cells for aerobic respiration

• Carbon dioxide must diffuse into photosynthesising plant cells to be available for photosynthesis

• Examples of substances that leave cells by diffusion:

• Liver cells break down excess amino acids into the waste product urea which is highly toxic and must diffuse out of cells to be
excreted by the kidneys

• Carbon dioxide produced by aerobic respiration must diffuse out of cells

Concentration gradient

• In both the transport of substances into and out of a cell by diffusion, the movement is
driven by a concentration gradientexisting between the cell and its immediate
environment.

• If the direction of that concentration gradient changes, the movement of a substance by

diffusion will also change
Factors that
affect
diffusion
Surface Area : Volume Ratio

• The surface area to volume ratio of an organism affects how easily substances can be
exchanged between it, and its environment

• Most bacteria are single-celled organisms. Bacteria have a relatively large surface area

in comparison to their volume
• This means that the distance between the cell membrane at a bacterial cell’s surface, and the centre of the cell, is relatively low

• Substances do not have to travel very far to get where they are needed, so transport by diffusion, osmosis or active transport
alone is sufficient for the cell to meet its needs
Unicellular organisms
can exchange materials
directly with their
environment
Calculating
Surface Area to
Volume Ratios
• You should be able to calculate and
compare surface area to volume ratios

• We can model the effect of how

increasing size affects surface: volume
ratio using simple cubes

• Larger organisms with smaller surface

area: volume ratios need exchange
surfaces and transport systems to ensure
their cells obtain the materials they need
Diffusion in Multicellular Organisms

• Large, multicellular organisms like humans have relatively small surface areas (SA) in
comparison to their volumes (in comparison to single-celled organisms)

• This means that the distance between the surface of the organism to its centre is
relatively large

• This is why larger organisms usually have exchange surfaces and transport systems;
as diffusion, osmosis and active transport cannot happen sufficiently to meet a larger
organism’s needs otherwise
Adaptations for
Exchange in
Animals
The small intestine

• Role in the body: 

• Most absorption of digested food molecules into the bloodstream occurs across the wall of the small intestine.

• How it’s adapted to its role: 

• It has a highly folded surface which is lined with specialised intestinal epithelial cells (which themselves have a highly folded
cell membrane) – this increases SA

• Only one layer of epithelial cells covers the surface of each villus – this decreases diffusion distance

• Each villus has a good blood supply – this maintains a concentration gradient
The lung
The lungs

• Role in the body: 

• Gas exchange between air in the alveoli and the blood, to supply cells with oxygen for aerobic respiration and to remove carbon
dioxide

• How it’s adapted to its role: 

• Millions of alveoli (singular: alveolus) which collectively provide a huge surface area – this increases SA

• The wall of each alveolus is one cell thick, with a moist lining and excellent blood supply – this maintains a concentration
gradient
The Gills in
Fish
Gills

• Role in the body: 

• Gas exchange between water flowing through the gills and the blood, to supply cells with oxygen for aerobic respiration and to
remove the waste product carbon dioxide

• How it’s adapted to its role: 

• Each gill is made from lots of smaller plates called filaments, which themselves are covered in projections called lamellae
– this increases SA

• Dense capillary network ensures a good blood supply which flows in the opposite direction to water passing through the gills
– this maintains a concentration gradient
Adaptations for Exchange in Plants
– The roots

• Role in the plant: 

• To absorb water and mineral ions (such as
magnesium and nitrate ions) from the soil and
anchor the plant

• How it’s adapted to its role: 

• The root network is highly branched – this
increases SA

• The surface of the roots are covered in root

hair cells, which have a specialised structure
with root hair projections – this increases SA
Leaves
• Role in the plant: 

• The leaves contain most of a plant’s photosynthetic

cells

• Photosynthesis requires efficient gas exchange

between air surrounding the leaf and the
photosynthetic cells, whilst minimising water loss

• How it’s adapted to its role: 

• Stomata are tiny openings that predominantly cover

the lower side of the leaf, allowing air to circulate
inside the leaf – this decreases diffusion
distance for carbon dioxide and oxygen

• The lower layer of the leaf is made from spongy

mesophyll cells which allow air to circulate inside
the leaf
Exchange surfaces
• In summary, multicellular organisms have surfaces and organ systems that maximise the exchange of materials by
increasing the efficiency of exchange in a number of ways:

• Having a large surface area to increase the rate of transport

• A barrier that is as thin as possible to separate two regions, to provide as short a diffusion path as possible for
substances to move across

• In addition, animals have:

• A large network of blood vessels throughout the body:

• To reduce distance of exchange of materials between cells and the bloodstream

• To move substances towards or away from exchange surfaces to maintain concentration gradients

• Gas exchange surfaces that are well ventilated to maintain concentration gradients
Osmosis –
The diffusion of Water
What is Osmosis?

• The movement of water into and out of cells occurs by osmosis 

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution to

a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane

• Osmosis is a just a special type of diffusion, so water molecules move about randomly

just like any other particle that can diffuse

• Water will always move from a more dilute solution to a more

(solute) concentrated solution to even up the concentration of water molecules on each
side of the membrane
Effect of solution concentration on diffusion table
The effect of
osmosis on
Plant Tissue
• The movement of water by osmosis can
easily be observed by placing two
similar pieces of plant tissue into
solutions with differing concentrations
The effect of osmosis on plant tissue:

• If the plant tissue gains mass:

• Water must have moved into the plant tissue from the solution surrounding it by osmosis

• The solution surrounding the tissue is more dilute than the plant tissue (which is more concentrated)

• If plant tissue loses mass:

• Water must have moved out of the plant tissue into the solution surrounding it by osmosis

• The solution surrounding the tissue is more concentrated than the plant tissue (which is more dilute)

• If there is no overall change in mass:

• There has been no net movement of water as the concentration in both the plant tissue and the solution surrounding it must be equal

• Remember that water will still be moving into and out of the plant tissue, but there wouldn’t be any net movement in this case
Active transport
Principles of active transport

• Diffusion and osmosis rely upon the passive transport of substances down concentration
gradients, relying on the random movement of particles

• However, cells also need to be able to transport substances across the cell
membrane against a concentration gradient. This requires energy released by
respiration
• The energy from respiration is used by protein transport molecules embedded in the cell membrane to move substances into or
out of the cell

• Active transport moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated
solution
Example of active transport: Plants

• Root hair cells lining the surface of plant roots need to move minerals such as
magnesium ions from a region of lower concentration (the very dilute solution of
minerals in the soil surrounding the roots) to a region of higher concentration (inside the
cytoplasm of the cell)

• Mineral ions are needed by plants to function healthily

• Magnesium ions are needed to make chlorophyll

• Nitrate ions are needed to make amino acids and therefore for protein synthesis (and subsequently growth)
In animals…

• Food molecules (such as the sugar glucose) can be absorbed across the wall of the small
intestine by diffusion, but this is dependent on a concentration gradient existing between
the lumen of the intestine and the bloodstream

• Active transport allows sugar such as glucose to be transported into the bloodstream
from the lumen of the small intestine (the gut) when the concentration of sugar
molecules in the blood is higher
• Sugar molecules are used in respiration to release energy for cells to function
Comparing transport processes

• In order to survive, cells must exchange substances between themselves and their
environment

• In summary, the transport of substances occurs into and out of cells by diffusion,
osmosis and active transport
Application: sports drinks
• During sport and exercise, the body’s temperature increases and this leads to the loss of water and salts through sweat
(and water vapour through the lungs from increased breathing rate)
• See The Nervous System: Control of Body Temperature

• Physical activity also requires greater muscle activity, so the rate of aerobic respiration in muscle cells increases during
exercise

• As a result, more glucose is used up in muscle cells and must be replaced

• Athletes opt to drink sports drinks over bottled water after competing

• These drinks are designed to help replace water, salts (ions/electrolytes) and glucose lost from the body during exercise

• It is very important that the balance between ions and water is correct between the cells of the body and the bloodstream
Sports drinks…
• If there is an imbalance then there could be negative effects on the body’s cells leading to them working inefficiently:
• If there is too little water in the blood or the blood ion concentration is too high: cells will lose too much water by osmosis and shrink/dehydrate

• If the concentration of water in the blood is too high or the ion concentration is too low, cells will absorb too much water, swelling and possibly bursting

• Isotonic sports drinks contain similar concentrations of salt and sugar (glucose) as the human body and are primarily
used for hydration and fluid replacement

• Hypertonic sports drinks contain concentrations of salt and sugar higher than typical blood levels
• This provides high salt and sugar levels for absorption from the small intestine – these drinks are suitable for supplying glucose in particular during intense physical exercise
(eg. during a marathon)

• Hypotonic sports drinks contain concentrations of salt and sugar lower than typical blood levels
• Drinking this type of drink creates a concentration gradient between the bloodstream and small intestine with the water potential in the small intestine being higher – these
drinks are suitable for rapid rehydration as water is drawn into the bloodstream by osmosis