BIO OO2 LECTURE NOTE

FOR
JUPEB / FOUNDATION STUDENTS

PREPARED BY
DR. KADIRI AKEEM BABALOLA
2018/2019
WEEK 7&8
PLANT
TAXONOMY
 Plant Taxonomy
Taxonomy is an essential basis of all biological sciences
because it enables the enormous diversity of organisms
either living or fossil to be recognized and described,
named according to an internationally accepted code and
systematically classified. A good taxonomic classification
reflects the genealogical and evolutionary relationship of
organisms and of individual species. Taxonomy facilitates
the identification of specimen by workers in other
disciplines of biological and chemical science and to these
workers it is therefore indispensable.
 OBJECTIVES
• to provide convenient methods of identifying,
classifying, naming and describing plant taxon.

• to provide a classification scheme that attempts

to express natural or phylogenetic relationships.

• to provide an inventory of plant taxa and to

make available both local, regional and
continental floras.

• To provide an understanding of evolutionary

processes and relationships
 CLASSIFICATION
This is information storage and retrieval system. Biological
classification is studied today for several reasons; biologists and other
scientists need to have a reference system for the plants they work
with. The name of the plant provides a reference point and behind
each name lies a whole series of assumptions that there is a group of
individuals sharing certain features in common so that whenever a
plant is determined as belonging to a named species, there is a high
degree of probability that it will always having the same sorts of
characteristics. The biological information behind a plant’s name is
highly important to the users of taxonomy. A sound classification and
information that goes with it can suggest a series of fundamental
logical problems that deserve investigation by scientists in various
fields. The scientific name is the communication medium to which all
pieces of information are attached. The name of a plant is the key to
its literature. If the identification of a plant is wrong or dubious, the
value of the work is greatly diminished and in many cases worthless.
Experiments cannot be repeated unless the organisms are
identified correctly. In the applied sciences of plant breeding,
agriculture, forestry, horticulture, pharmacology etc. the link with
taxonomy is concerned not only with identification but also with
relationships. The bond is particularly closed and often of great
economic importance. Thus, the taxonomic approach is a focal
point for all students of Biology. It enables them to fit together
into a frame work of ideas, a mass of otherwise uncoordinated
facts.

Taxonomy is therefore a pedestal upon biology is built. In the

determination of relationship based on diverse characteristics
derived from many sources. Systematics is the unifying and
integrating discipline which represents the peak of biological
endeavour.
 PLANT NOMENCLATURE
NAMES OF SPECIES:
This consists of 2 terms and are therefore called BINOMIAL,
BINOMINAL, and BINARY. The name of a species consists of
the name of the genus in which the species is classified
followed by a second term which is peculiar to the species
e.g. Solanum tuberosum, Zea mays.

The complete binary names is referred to as the SPECIFIC

NAME, the first one is the generic name while the second
one is the specific epithet. The second name may be
adjectival in which case it is agreed in gender with the
generic name. a noun is apposition or a noun in the genetic
case.
 FORMATION OF NAMES
Generic Name
1. When the name of the person ends in vowels add ‘a’ as the suffix. (i)
Jussieu = Jussieua
2. If the name ends in ‘a’, then add ‘ea’ E.g. Bola=Bolaea; Colla =
Collaea
3. If the name ends in a consonant, add ‘ia’ E.g. Travih = Travihia
Work to do: Bauhin, Park, Bignon

4. If the name ends in ‘er’, add ‘a’ E.g. Peter = Petera

Work to do: Kerner , Walker

5. In the Latinised names ending in ‘us’, drop the ‘us’ and then add ‘ai’
as the suffix.
E.g. Julius = Juliia
Work to do: Dillinus, Apollonius
 SPECIFIC EPITHETS
In the formation of specific names or epithets, the following rules
hold:
1. if the name ends in a vowel add i.
E. g. Deola =Deolai ; Sumbo =sumboi.

2. If the name ends in ‘a’, add ‘e’

Deola= deolae

3. If it ends in a consonant add ii

E.g. Stebbins = stebbinsii
Work to do: Brown, Green, Clark

4. if the name ends with er, add ‘i’

E.g. Parker = Parkeri
Work to do:
Fraser, Peter
 WRITE THE GENUS NAME
Use an online scientific name finder, such as SciName Finder,
to look up the genus of your organism.

Underline or italicize the genus name, and capitalize the first

letter.

For example, let’s say you were writing the scientific name
of the snake plant, a tropical plant native to West Africa.

The genus name would be written Sansevieria or

Sansevieria.

Using the common name of your organism in an online

search will yield the proper scientific name.
WRITE THE SPECIFIC EPITHET AFTER THE GENUS NAME

Look up the specific epithet (the species name) of your

organism if you don’t know it yet.

Underline or italicize the specific epithet, and put it in

lowercase

The specific epithet of the snake plant would be

written trifasciata or trifasciata.
Sansevieria trifasciata
Wao!
This is interesting.
 PRACTICE WRITING THE SCIENTIFIC NAME

Write the full scientific name by placing the two

italicized terms in the proper order with a space
between them.

Our snake plant’s full scientific name could be written

Sansevieria trifasciata or Sansevieria trifasciata.
 ADD NAMES FOR MUTATIONS, IF NECESSARY

Determine if your organism has a special variety or

cultivar.

For cultivars, add the name of the cultivar, capitalized

and in single quotes, after the specific epithet.

Do not underline or italicize the cultivar name.

For varieties, write “var.” after the epithet and underline

or italicize the variety name. Capitalize a variety name
only if it is a proper noun.
For example, the scientific name of the Golden Hahnii
snake plant, a new cultivar of the snake plant, would be
written Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Golden Hahnii.’

The scientific name of the striped snake plant, a variety of

the snake plant, would be written Sansevieria trifasciata
var. Laurentii.
The Laurentii is capitalized because it is a proper noun (a
last name) in honor of the person who discovered the
plant.

 
Varieties are mutations that occur in nature, while
cultivars are man-made mutations.

For example, a new variety of a species might occur in a

unique natural environment, such as a rainforest.

On the other hand, a cultivar might develop in a

greenhouse where humans are only breeding certain
types of plants.
 USING SCIENTIFIC NAME IN WRITINGS

Abbreviate the generic name for subsequent references to

the same organism in your writings.

For example, Sansevieria trifasciata would become S.

trifasciata on future references.

Most generic names are abbreviated with a capitalized first

letter then a period.
 BOTANICAL NAMES OF SOME ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT
AND INTERESTING PLANT SPECIES
Botanical name Common/English /Vernacular  
Abelmoschus esculentus Okra (Ladies fingers)  
Adansonia digitata Baobab  
Allium cepa Onion  
Anacardium occidentale Cashew  
Ananas comosus Pineapple  
Arachis hypogoea Groundnut  
Azadirachta indica Neem(Dogonyaro)  
Caesalpinia bonduc Ayo  
Camellia sinensis Tea  
Cannabis sativa Hemp  
Capsicum annum Pepper  
Carica papaya Pawpaw  
Citrullus vulgaris Watermelon  
Citrus autrantium Orange  
Citrus medica Lemon  
Citrus reticulatum Tangerine  
Cocos nucifera Coconut  
Coffea arabica Coffee  
Cola acuminate Abata kola (3 cotyledons or more)  
Cola nitida Gbanja kola (1-2 cotyledons)  
Colocasia esculenta Cocoyam  
Colocynthis vulgaris Bitter gourd(Melon)  
Corchorus olitorius Jew's mallow (Ewedu)  
Crescentia cujete Calabash tree  
Cucurbita maxima (pepo) Pumpkin  
Cymbopogon citratus Lemon grass  
Daucus carota Carrot  
Dioscorea alata Great yam (ewura)  
D. cayenensis Yellow guinea yam  
D. composite Wild yam  
D. dumetorum African bitter yam  
D. rotundata White guinea yam  
Elaeis guineensis Oil palm  
Erythroxylon coca Cocaine  
F. exasperate Sand -paper plant  
Gossypium arboreum; (G. barbadense) Cotton  
Helianthus annuus Sunflower  
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus  
Hibiscus sabdariffa Isapa, Zobo  
Ipomoea batatas Sweet potato  
Irvingia gabonensis Wild mango (Ogbono, Oro)  
Khaya grandifoliola; K.senegalensis Mahogany  
Kigelia Africana Sausage tree  
Mangifera indica Mango  
Manihot esculenta Cassava  
Momordica angustisepala Sponge (Ubiquitous sponge type)  
Musa sapientium Banana  
Musa parasidiaca Plantain  
Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco  
Oryza sativa Rice  
Raphia farinifera Raffia palm  
Raphia hookeri Wine palm  
Rhizophora racemosa Red mangrove  
Ricinus communis Castor oil plant  
Roystonea regia Cuban royal palm  
Saccharum officinarum Sugar cane  
Sida acuta Broom plant  
Solanum melongena Egg plant  
Solanum tuberosum Potato  
Sorghum guineense Guinea corn  
Tecoma stans Yellow bolts  
Tectona grandis Teak  
Telfairia occidentalis Ugwu (Vegetable)  
Terminalia catappa Indian almond fruit  
T. superba Afara(culu)  
Theobroma cacao Cocoa  
Thevetia peruviana Yellow oleander  
Triplochyton scleroxylon African maple, Obeche  
Typha australis Mace, cat tails  
Vernonia amygdalina Bitter leaf  
Vigna unguiculata Cowpea  
Vinea rosea Periwinkles  
Vitis vinifera Grapes  
Zea mays Maize or corn  
Zingiber officinale Ginger  
 CLASSIFICATION
THE UNIT OF CLASSIFICATION

Botanical classification involves the assembly of plants

into taxonomic groups or taxa on the basis of their

relationship. The international code of botanical

nomenclature which is the internationally agreed rule-

book of green plants and fungal nomenclature recognizes

12 main ranks in the hierocracy ad these are:

 With Characteristics
Kingdom
Division

Ending
Class
Order
Family
Tribe
Genus
Section

No Characteristics
Section

Ending
Series
Species
Variety
Form
Each category can be easily doubled by designating
subcategories below each rank e. g subdivision
subclass etc.

As an aid to indicate the rank to which a taxon

belongs, ranks below the level of division and sub
tribes are generally provided with characteristic
endings.

These endings are not the same in all groups of

organism but within green plants. The only important
exceptions are found in algae.
TAXONOMIC CATEGORY ENDING EXAMPLE

Kingdom Phyta Plantae

Division

Sub division
Class {Phytina Spermatophyte
Sub class - Opsida Spermatophyte
  - Idea Angiospermopsida dicofyledonidae

Super order - anea Rosanea

Order - ales Fabales
Family - Aleae Fabaceae
Tribe - Oideae Papilionadeae
Sub Tribe   Phaseoleae
Genus Downwards No characteristics Ending (-) Phaseolus

Species - vulgaris
Sub species - Phaseolus ssp. vulgaris
Variety - Var. vulgaris
Cultivar - Cultivar Oloyin, drum, olo 1, olo 2.
 Differences between Taxonomy and Systematics
• Systematics is a more vast area than taxonomy. In fact, taxonomy
is a branch of systematics.

• Taxonomy is important to name, describe, arrange, and identify a

certain species, whereas systematics is important to provide layout
for all those taxonomic functions.

• The evolutionary history of species is studied in systematics but

not in taxonomy.

• The environmental conditions are directly related for the analyses

of systematics, whereas those are indirectly related with taxonomy.

• Taxonomy is subjected to change with time, whereas systematics

should not change if the studying has been correctly done.
 WEEK 9&14
PLANT
CONSERVATION
 PLANT CONSERVATION
Conservation of natural resources refers to the sustainable utilization of natural resources,
like soils, water, plants, animals, and minerals, timber, fish, game, topsoil, pastureland, and
minerals, and also to the preservation of forests-forestry, wildlife-wildlife refuge, parkland,
wilderness, and watershed areas.

METHODS OF CONSERVATION

In-situ conservation: This is the conservation of species in their natural habitats. It is

considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. Examples are nature park,
botanical garden, Nature Reserves etc

Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their

natural habitats.  This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and
cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. 

Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, field banks;

In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;

Collecting living organisms for botanic gardens for research and public awareness.
 LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS OF NIGERIA

The Nigeria National Park Service (NNPS) has the

responsibility to preserve, enhance, protect and manage
vegetation and wild animals in the national parks of
Nigeria. The NNPS is a parastatal under the Federal
Ministry of the Environment, and is headed by a
Conservator General. It works closely with the Nigerian
Tourism Development Corporation. The first national park
was Kainji Lake in Niger State which was established in
1979 and another five parks were added in 1991.
The parks in Nigeria cover about 3% of Nigeria's total land
area which is approximately 20,156 km2.
NATIONAL PARKS OF NIGERIA
Park Area km2 Established State(s) Notes
Includes part of the
Hadejia-Nguru wetlan
Chad Basin 2,258 1991 Borno, Yobe ds
and the
Sambisa Game Reserv
e
Okwangwo section
Cross River 4,000 1991 Cross River and Oban section
(1,906 km²)
Gashaka Gumti 6,731 1991 Taraba, Adamawa
Includes Kainji Lake,
Kainji 5,382 1979 Niger, Kwara Borgu Game Reserve
and Zugurma
Game Reserve
Kamuku 1,121 1999 Kaduna
Okomu 181 1999 Edo Part of the Okomu
Forest Reserve
Old Oyo 2,512 1991 Oyo, Kwara
Operated by the
Yankari 2,244 1962 Bauchi Bauchi State
government
 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PLANTS

Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather

patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e.,
decades to millions of years).

Climate change will affect agriculture through effects on crops and

weeds, soils, insects and disease. In terms of crops, the main
climatic variables that are important are temperature, solar
radiation, water and atmospheric CO2 concentration.
Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics
, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change, often
referred to as global warming.[1] There is no general agreement in scientific, media or policy documents as to the precise
term to be used to refer to anthropogenic forced change; either "global warming" or "climate change" may be used.[2][3][4]
Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models. A climate
record—extending deep into the Earth's past—has been assembled, and continues to be built up, based on geological
evidence from borehole temperature profiles, cores removed from deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunal records,
glacial and periglacial processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels.
More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, based on the physical sciences, are
often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in
climate change.
Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms".[5] These can be either "internal" or
"external". Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the climate system itself (e.g., the thermohaline
circulation). External forcing mechanisms can be either anthropogenic—caused by humans—(e.g. increased
emissions of greenhouse gases and dust) or natural (e.g., changes in solar output, the earth's orbit, volcano eruptions).
Physical evidence to observe climate change includes a range of parameters. Global records of surface temperature are
available beginning from the mid-late 19th century. For earlier periods, most of the evidence is indirect—climatic changes
are inferred from changes in proxies, indicators that reflect climate, such as ice cores,[6] dendrochronology,
sea level change, and glacial geology. Other physical evidence includes arctic sea ice decline, cloud cover and
precipitation, vegetation, animals and historical and archaeological evidence.
Effects on Plant Diversity
Species ‘left behind’ as they are unable to change distribution fast enough.
Species with long life cycles and/or slow dispersal are particularly vulnerable.
Some isolated or disjunct species are particularly vulnerable, as they may have 'nowhere
to go'. These include
Arctic and alpine species, and Island endemics
Coastal species which will be 'squeezed' between human settlements and rising sea levels.
Plant genetic composition may change in response to the selection pressure of climate
change.
Some plant communities or species associations may be lost as species move and adapt at
different rates.
Increased invasions by alien species may occur, as conditions become more suitable for
exotic species whilst native species become less well suited to their environment (for
example, Bromus is more invasive in wet years (Smith et al, 2000)). This is especially true
given human interventions which have deliberately and accidentally facilitated the spread
of species across the globe.
Many plant communities act as 'sinks' (store carbon), which helps to offset carbon
emissions. However, over the next 70 years, the effects of climate change on plants mean
many terrestrial sinks may become sources.
 
 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL PEST CONTROL

Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests such as insects, mites, weeds
and plant diseases using other organisms.[1] It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or
other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can
be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
There are three basic strategies for biological pest control: classical (importation), where a
natural enemy of a pest is introduced in the hope of achieving control; inductive
(augmentation), in which a large population of natural enemies are administered for quick pest
control; and inoculative (conservation), in which measures are taken to maintain natural
enemies through regular reestablishment.[2]
Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators,
parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most
often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed predators,
herbivores and plant pathogens.
Biological control can have side-effects on biodiversity through attacks on non-target species by
any of the same mechanisms, especially when a species is introduced without thorough
understanding of the possible consequences.
A parasitoid wasp (Cotesia congregata) adult Syrphus hoverfly larva (below)
with pupal cocoons on its host, a tobacco feed on aphids (above),
hornworm (Manduca sexta, green making them natural biological
background), an example of a hymenopteran control agents.
biological control agent

The invasive species Alternanthera philoxeroides Predatory Polistes wasp searching for
(alligator weed) was controlled in Florida (U.S.) by bollworms or other caterpillars on a cotton
introducing alligator weed flea beetle. plant