81 : MAMMALIAN HEART

AND ITS REGULATION

 OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

(a) describe the structure of a mammalian heart;
(b) define systole and diastole, and explain the
sequence of events in a cardiac cycle including
changes in pressure and volume in
aorta, left atrium and left ventricle;
(c) describe the initiation and regulation
of heart beat;
HEART

The heart begins beating at

four weeks after conception
and does not stop until death.
 STRUCTURES of HEART
 Is a hollow, muscular organ
 Is enclosed by pericardium (a tough connective
tissue sac)
 STRUCTURES of HEART
 Consist of four chambers:
 atrium (auricle) : right and left
 ventricle : right and left
 STRUCTURES of HEART
 Right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from the
whole body through vena cava

 Right ventricle:pumps out deoxygenated blood to the

lungs through pulmonary arteries

 Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs

through pulmonary veins

 Left ventricle: pumps out oxygenated blood to the whole

body through aorta
Why do the atria have less muscular walls than
the ventricles ???
 Both atria only have to pump blood down to the
ventricles (a short distance)

 Both ventricles have

much thicker walls
because they have to
develop enough pressure
to force the blood out of
heart.

8
 Why do the left ventricle has more muscular
wall than the right ventricle ???
 Right ventricle only has to force blood to the lungs
(which are very near to the heart)

 Left ventricle has

much thicker walls
because it has to develop
enough pressure to
pump blood to the whole
body

9
 STRUCTURES of HEART
 Septum separates:
 the right atrium from the left atrium (interatrial septum)
 the right ventricle from the left ventricle
(interventricular septum)

 To keep blood from flowing backward and to

ensure the blood flow in one way direction, the
heart has valves :

 atrioventricular (AV) valves

 semilunar valves
 STRUCTURES of HEART
 Atrioventricular (AV) valves:
 right AV valve @ tricuspid valve (between right
atrium and right ventricle) ***prevent the backflow of blood from
right ventricle into right atrium)

 left AV valve @ bicuspid valve (between left

atrium and left ventricle) ***prevent the backflow of blood from left
ventricle into left atrium)

 Semilunar valves:
 pulmonary valve (between right ventricle and
pulmonary artery) ***prevent the backflow of blood from pulmonary
artery into right ventricle)

 aortic valve (between left ventricle and aorta)

***prevent the backflow of blood from aorta into left ventricle)
 Closed Tricuspid Opened Tricuspid Valve
Valve

Closed Bicuspid Valve Opened Bicuspid Valve

Superior vena Aorta
cava Left pulmonary arteries
Right pulmonary Pulmonary artery
arteries

Pulmonary veins

Left atrium
Pulmonary valve
Right atrium Aortic valve

Pulmonary Bicuspid valve

veins
Left ventricle
Tricuspid valve
Interventricular
Right ventricle septum

Inferior vena cava

Aorta
Cardiac muscle in the heart is
myogenic.
 It is composed of striated muscle cells.
The cells are cross-connected by
branching fibres.
The intercalated discs are cell surface
membranes separating individual muscle
cells and permit diffusion of Na+ and K +.
 This allows the rapid spread of
impulses from cell to cell and enables the
musclecells to work as a single functioning
unit.
The muscle cells can continue to
contract without fatigue as they have a
long refractory period.
 Blood Vessel
 There are three kinds of blood vessels:
 Arteries
 Arteries transport blood away from the heart.
Arteries branch into smaller vessels called
arterioles
 Blood Vessel
 Capillaries
 Is the arterioles branch to form tiny vessels
with thin walls
Act as the sites for the exchange of respiratory
gases, nutrients and wastes
 Blood Vessel
 There are three kinds of blood vessels:
 Veins
The capillaries join with one another to form
venules.
Venules join together to form the larger veins.
Veins transport blood back to the heart
 Mamalian double
Circulation
 Consist pulmonary and systemic circulations
which the blood enters the heart twice during one
complete circulation.
 Pulmonary circulation:
the right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the
lungs and oxygenated blood flows back to the left side
of the heart.
 Systemic circulation :
 The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to
other parts of the body and
deoxygenated blood returns to the right side of the right
side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the
lungs and oxygenated blood flows back to the left side
of the heart.
 Mamalian double
Circulation
 Closed circulatory system

In mammals, the circulatory system is closed

where the blood flows through blood vessels and
does not enter the body cavity.
 This allows for faster transport of substances to
different parts of the body.
 CARDIAC CYCLE :
Definition

A sequence of events of a heart beat in

which the cardiac muscle contract and relax
alternate and continuously

One complete cardiac cycle takes about 0.8 second

***During contraction : blood is pumped while

during relaxation : chambers are filled with blood
 CARDIAC CYCLE :
Three Phases
ATRIAL SYSTOLE
 contraction of atria (0.1 seconds)

VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
 contraction of ventricles (0.3 seconds)

ATRIAL and VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE

 relaxation of atria and ventricles
(0.4 seconds)
 1

2
3
 CARDIAC CYCLE : Atrial Systole
 Both atria contract simultaneously (while both
ventricles relax)
 All blood (about 30%) is pumped out of atria into
ventricles
 As atria contract, blood pressure in atria increase
 High blood pressure in atria cause the tricuspid and
bicuspid valves to open
 Semilunar valves remain closed
 CARDIAC CYCLE : Ventricular Systole
 Both ventricles contract simultaneously (while both atria
relax)
 During relaxation of atria, atria are filled up with blood

 Blood is pumped out of ventricles into aorta and pulmonary

artery
 As ventricles contract, blood pressure in ventricles increase

 High blood pressure in ventricles cause:

 the semilunar valves to open and

 the tricuspid and bicuspid valves to close due tu recoil of blood

against AV valve thus, producing the first sound ‘lub’
 CARDIAC CYCLE : Atrial and Ventricular Diastole
 Both atria and ventricles relax
 Blood from vena cava and pulmonary veins enters both atria
 As blood enters both atria, the blood pressure in atria
gradually increase
 As blood pressure in atria increase, blood from atria enter the
ventricles, pushing open the tricuspid and bicuspid valves
***About 70% blood flow from atria into ventricles

 Blood pressure in aorta and pulmonary arteries higher than

blood pressure in ventricles
 High blood pressure in aorta and pulmonary arteries cause:
 the semilunar valves to close due to recoil of bloods agaist
semilunar valve thus, producing the second sound ‘dub’
 a
 (b) Pressure changes that occur in the left side of the heart
during a cardiac cycle. The pattern is similar on the right side
although pressures are lower.

(a) A normal ECG It begins with a P wave, atrial

b
depolarisation and the spread of impulse throughout the atria.
The QRS complex indicates ventricular depolarisation. The T
wave represents ventricular repolarisation

 (d) Changes in the volume of blood in the left ventricle during

 (ccardiac
the )Heart cycle.
sounds are caused by closure of the valves. The
first sound lub' is caused by the closure the cuspid
(atrioventricular) valves. The second sound 'dup' is caused by
the closure of the semilunar valves
 e) The systole and diastole of the atria and ventricies related
to time.
 CARDIAC CYCLE

te) The systole and diastole of the atria and ventricies related
to time.

Dicrotic notch

mereaus in atmal blood P that

appears when gorfic valve

 STPM 2016
20 Agricultural biotechnology application manipulates the
genetic make-up of organisms which are used in the production
of the improved agricultural products.

(b) Describe how genetic manipulation can be performed to

produce a tomato plant with a new trait using Agrobacterium.
[12 marks]
 STPM 2017

(b)- Ti plasmid is isolated from Agrobacterium tumefaciens

-Ti plasmid is cut open with a restriction
-A gene of interest is isolated
-The gene of interest and plasmid are cut using the same
restriction endonuclease
-The target gene is inserted into the Ti plasmid
-A recombinant Ti plasmid with the donor DNA is formed
-The recombinant plasmid is transformed into the Agrobacterium
-The bacterium is used to insert the foreign DNA into the
chromosome of the tomato plant
-This is done by infecting the tomato plant
-The plant cells divide and each daughter cell
 HEART BEAT

One heartbeat consists

of a contraction phase
(systole) and the
relaxation phase
(diastole)
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT:
An Overview
 Each heart beat is initiated by the sinoatrial (SA)
node or pacemaker
 SA node is located in the wall of right atrium, near
the opening of superior vena cava
 SA node generates impulse (wave of contraction)

 Impulse from SA node spread rapidly through the

walls of atria, causing both atria to contract
simultaneously and pump blood into both ventricles
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT:
An Overview

 During atrial contraction, the impulse reach the

atrioventricular (AV) node
 AV node is located in the wall between the right
and left atria
 Here, the impulse are delayed for about 0.1
second before spreading to the walls of ventricles
 This delay allows both atria to finish contracting
and empty completely before the ventricles contract
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT:
An Overview
 Then, impulse from AV node is transmitted to the
bundle of His
 Bundle of His is divided into two, right bundle
branches and left bundle branches
 From the right and left bundle branches, impulse
spread to the Purkinje fibers
 Causing both ventricles to contract simultaneously
from the apex upwards (to force blood flow upwards into aorta
and pulmonary arteries)
***apex: bottom of heart
INITIATION of HEART BEAT

Atria
SA node Atria
contract

AV node

Ventricles Bundle of
contract His

Right and left bundle

Purkinje fibers
branches
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT
 SA node generates impulse
 The impulse spreads through both atria
 Causing atria to contract simultaneously
 ATRIAL SYSTOLE
 Results in, blood pressure in atria is higher than blood pressure
in ventricles
 High pressure in atria will open the tricuspid and bicuspid valves
(right and left atrioventricular valves)
 Blood is pumped out of both atria into ventricles
 During contraction of atria, both ventricles relax
 VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT
 Impulse from atria reach the AV node
 The impulse are delayed for 0.1 second before
spreading to the walls of ventricles (to allow both atria
finish contracting and empty completely before the
ventricles contract)
 From AV node, impulse is transmitted to the bundle of
His
 From bundle of His, impulse is transmitted to the right
and left bundle branches
 From the right and left bundle branches, impulse
spread to the Purkinje fibers
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT
 Causing both ventricles to contract simultaneously from the apex
upwards (in order to force blood flow upwards into aorta and pulmonary arteries)
 VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
 Results in, blood pressure in ventricles is higher than blood
pressure in atria
 High pressure in ventricles will
 open the semilunar valves and
 close the tricuspid and bicuspid valves
 The closing of the atrioventricular valves, producing the first
sound ‘lub’ (to prevent backflow of blood into atria)
 Blood is pumped out of ventricles into aorta and pulmonary
arteries
1 2

3 4
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT
 During the contraction of both ventricles, both atria relax
 The relaxation of atria is known as
 ATRIAL DIASTOLE
 During atrial diastole,
 deoxygenated blood from vena cava flow into right atrium

 oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins flow into left

atrium
 INITIATION of HEART BEAT
 Atria and ventricles relax
 ATRIA and VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE
 During the relaxation of atria and ventricles:
 blood flow from vena cava and pulmonary veins into right
and left atria
 blood flow from atria into right and left ventricles
 Arterial blood pressure (blood pressure in aorta and pulmonary
arteries) is higher than blood pressure in ventricles
 High pressure in aorta and pulmonary arteries will close the
semilunar valves (to prevent backflow of blood into ventricles)
 The closing of semilunar valves will produce the second sound
‘dub’
SOUND of HEART BEAT
 PRESSURE CHANGES in CARDIAC CYCLE :
Graph
1: - Atrial systole
- As atria contract, blood pressure in atria increase
- Blood is pumped out of atria into ventricles

2: - Atrial diastole
- Blood pressure in ventricles is higher than blood pressure in atria
- Results in, the closing of AV valves thus, producing the 1st sound
‘lub’

3: - Ventricular systole
- As ventricles contract, blood pressure in ventricles rapidly
increase
 PRESSURE CHANGES in CARDIAC CYCLE :
Graph
4: - Blood pressure in ventricles is higher than blood pressure in aorta
- Results in, the opening of semilunar valves

5: - Blood pressure in aorta is higher than blood pressure in ventricles

- Results in, the closing of semilunar valves thus, producing the 2nd
sound ‘dub’
6: - Ventricular diastole
- As ventricles relax, blood pressure in ventricles decrease sharply

7: - Blood pressure in atria is higher than blood pressure in ventricles

- Results in, the opening of AV valves
 Impulse (wave of contraction) that spreads
through cardiac muscle during the cardiac
cycle, produce an electrical currents that are
conducted into the surrounding tissues and
onto the skin
The electrical currents can be
detected by electrodes and can be
recorded as an electrocardiogram
(ECG or EKG)

The apparatus used is an

electrocardiograph
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG @ EKG)
 ECG is a recording of the electrical waves that
represents the electrical current generated throughout
the cardiac muscles during cardiac cycle

***The information obtained from an electrocardiogram can be

used to diagnose the heart problems

52
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG @ EKG)
When the electrodes is placed at certain points on the
body, the electrical activity of the heart can be detected
depolarize
repolarize
***depolarize : during contraction
repolarize : during relaxation
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG @ EKG)

 P wave represents atrial systole

 QRS complex represents ventricular systole
 T wave represents ventricular diastole
54
 SA node generates impulse
 Impulse spreads through
both atria just before atria
contraction

 Impulse spreads through the

ventricles before they
contract

56
 SA
Nodes AV
Nodes

P wave is caused by atrial

Bundle systole
of His
QRS waves is caused by
Purkinje ventricular systole
fibres
T wave represents the
ventricular diastole

57
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM : INTERPRETATION

P wave
SA node generates impulse
(wave of contraction)

P
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM : INTERPRETATION

P wave
Impulse from SA node
spreads to both atria
Depolarization of atria
i.e. contraction of atria
Impulse spreads to AV node

P
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM : INTERPRETATION

P wave
From AV node, impulse
spreads to the right, left
bundle branches and
Purkinje fibers

P
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM : INTERPRETATION

QRS complex
Impulse spread to both
ventricles

Depolarization of ventricles
i.e. contraction of ventricles

Repolarization of atria
R i.e. relaxation of atria

Q S
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM : INTERPRETATION

T wave
Repolarization of ventricles
i.e. relaxation of ventricles

Recovery of ventricles at the

end of contraction

T
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM : IMPORTANCE
 To diagnose abnormalities in heart
e.g. a heightened P wave indicates an
enlarged atrium

e.g. a heightened R wave indicates an

enlarged ventricles

 To detect the presence of fetus

 CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE
 Rate of heart beat can be regulated by :
Nerves Hormones

Rate of heart beat is controlled by cardioregulatory

center (located in medulla oblongata

 There are two regions of cardioregulatory center :

CARDIOACCELERATORY CENTER (CAC)

CARDIOINHIBITORY CENTER (CIC)
CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Nerves

 The cardioregulatory centers regulate two types of

autonomic nerves that pass to the SA node

Parasympathetic nerves
Sympathetic nerves

 Both nerves have antagonist effects:

Sympathetic nerve :
increase rate of heart beat
Parasympathetic nerve:
decrease rate of heart beat
CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Nerves
Cardioregulatory center in medulla oblongata receive
impulse from :
Cerebrum and hypothalamus
Chemoreceptor
Baroreceptor
(located at aorta & carotid artery)

After receiving impulse, the cardioregulatory center is

stimulated to send impulse to SA node
CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Nerves

When cardioacceleratory center is stimulated:

Impulse is sent to SA node via sympathetic nerve

Sympathetic nerve endings secrete norepinephrine (a

neurotransmitter)

Due to the presence of norepinephrine, the rate of heart

beat will increase

***norepinephrine=noradrenaline
 CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Nerves

E.g (1): When blood pressure is low:

Low blood pressure is detected by baroreceptor
Baroreceptor send impulse to cardioacceleratory center

Cardioacceleratory center is stimulated to send impulse to SA node

via sympathetic nerves
Sympathetic nerve endings secrete norepinephrine
Norepinephrine will increase the frequency of impulse production by
SA node
Thus, increasing the contraction of cardiac muscles which results in,
the rate of heart beat increase
CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Nerves

When cardioinhibitory center is stimulated:

Impulse is sent to SA node via parasympathetic nerve

Parasympathetic nerve endings secrete acetylcholine (a

neurotransmitter)

Due to the presence of acetylcholine, the rate of heart

beat will decrease
 CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Nerves

E.g (2): When blood pressure is high:

High blood pressure is detected by baroreceptor
Baroreceptor send impulse to cardioinhibitory center

Cardioinhibitory center is stimulated to send impulse to SA node via

parasympathetic nerves
Parasympathetic nerve endings secrete acetylcholine
Acetylcholine will decrease the frequency of impulse production by
SA node
Thus, decreasing the contraction of cardiac muscles which results in,
the rate of heart beat decrease
CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Hormones

Two types of hormones that can affect the rate of heart

beat:
EPINEPHRINE @ ADRENALINE
NOREPINEPHRINE @ NORADRENALINE

Both hormones are secreted by adrenal glands in

response to physical and emotional stress
Both hormones will increase the frequency of impulse
production by SA node thus, increasing the contraction of
cardiac muscles and results in, the rate of heart beat
increase
CONTROL of HEART BEAT RATE : Hormones
E.g (3): During physical and emotional stress:
Impulse is sent to hypothalamus
From hypothalamus send impulse to cardioacceleratory center

Cardioacceleratory center send impulse to adrenal gland

Adrenal gland is stimulated to secrete epinephrine and
norepinephrine into bloodstream
Both hormones will stimulate SA node to
increase the frequency of impulse production

Results in, increasing of cardiac muscles

contraction and rate of heart beat will
increase
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING HEART BEAT
RATE
 an increase in body temperature
Body (e.g. fever)
temperature  the rate of heart beat will increase in
order to regulate body temperature to the
normal condition
***More blood circulates through the skin, bringing heat to
the body surface. Heat will radiate from the body surface to
the environment

 a decrease in blood pH
pH of Blood (e.g. during vigorous exercise)
 the rate of heart beat will increase in
order to regulate blood pH to the normal
condition
***More deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs. More
CO2 is released through exhalation