Topic A Relativity

SPECIAL RELATIVITY ACCORDING TO EINSTEIN

Reference Frames

 A reference frame is simple a way of representing the position and motion of a particle in
space. Newton believed that motion was constant in all reference frames. Einstein and
others showed us that this was not so.
 In this course will deal with inertial reference frames (non-accelerating) motion (you will
need to study the much more complicated General Theory of Relativity to deal with
accelerating reference frames)
 We live in a 4-dimensional space – time universe … 3 dimensions for space and one for
time (other dimensions may exist but we will ignore them for now.
Point of View

A ball shot straight upwards from a moving cart will land back in
the cart. From the reference frame of someone looking at the
moving cart, the ball will follow a parabolic path.

From the point of view of inside the moving cart the ball simply
moves up and down.

The same motion is seen in two different ways by two different observers, each in his own reference frame. However
both will agree that the ball ends up back in the cart. This is the start of relativity
 Point of View

So which position (parabolic path or up and down path) is the correct path of the ball in the previous slide?

The answer of course is both are correct, in there own reference frames.

Which brings us to one of the postulates of Special Relativity:

All the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames. And that there is no
absolute correct reference frame. All reference frames are equally valid!

As Einstein said, imagine yourself inside a perfectly smooth riding train travelling along at a constant velocity with no
window to see out. Can you do any experiment to prove that you are moving or stationary?

Now put a window in your train. Can you perform any experiment inside your train to prove that you are in motion or that
the back ground is in motion? (Inertial reference frame only.)
Galilean Transformations

A set of axes can be used to represent the motion of a particular object:

y
If the object is moving in the x-direction with
vt constant velocity, then it’s position at different
times can be shown as a line (vt)

x
Galilean Transformations

Now let’s look at this motion from another point of view (reference frame):

What if our object was actually on a railway car moving a constant velocity, v,
of to wards the right?
v
Y’

X’
In this case some stationary observer would actually measure the position
of this object to be the sum of the railroad’s car velocity and it’s own
velocity
X’
v
Galilean Transformations

Galileo knew that you would add the two positions (the object and the rail road car’s) to determine the position
of the object in your own non-moving reference frame.

x = vt + x’

These increases in velocities are called boost and there is a relatively simple way to describe these changes
and they are called Galilean Transformations.
Galilean Transformations

• The translation rule tells us there is no special place in the universe; position is relative.

• The rotation rule says there is no special direction in the universe, direction is relative.

• The boost rule says there is no special velocity. Stationary is not an absolute condition and any object can be
described as stationary with respect to each other. (Two cars travelling side by side at 100 km/h are stationary
with respect to each other but not to the ground.)

u1 = 15 km/h u2 = 65 km/h
What is the velocity of the red relative
to pink car? The pink car relative to red
car? Relative to the brick wall?
Galilean Transformations Equations:

Translation in one direction; if the distance between the origins of two inertial frames S and S’ is
X then a position of x in S is related to position x’ in from S’ by:

x’ = x - X
For boost, if one inertial frame moves relative to another by a constant relative velocity v along the x-axis,
then the same distance between every second and this distance is vt where t is the time since the frames
coincided. The position of x in frame S will be related to position in x’ in S’ by:

x = x’ + vt and x’ = x - vt

The velocities also transform; If the velocity in S is u and velocity in S’ is u’ then:

u’ = u - v
Galilean Transformations Worked Examples

Example 1:

A car is traveling at 45 km/h along a road. A second car passes the first car with a relative speed of 15
km/h to the first car. What is the relative velocity of the second car to the road?
Galilean Transformations Worked Examples

Example 2:

A proton is measured to travel at 2.4 x 105 m/s in a lab. A second proton is measure to travel at 3.4 x 105
m/s relative to the same lab. Use Galilean transformations to determine the speed relative to each other
when:

a) traveling in same direction

b) travelling in opposite directions
Maxwell and Einstein

Lets us look again at magnetism and electric current. You may remember that when a moving charge is made to travel
past a current carrying conductor (electrons travelling at v, velocity), the moving charge will feel a force and will move at
right angles to the particles direction and magnetic field.
B

+q

Let us change reference frames to see what happens.

Maxwell and Einstein

This time an observer is made to travel at the same velocity as the moving charge and the moving electrons. From this
point of view the charge +q is stationary to the current. It also is stationary to the magnetic field around the wire.

+q
Stationary charge +q and
electrons.

Remember that magnetic fields can not affect non-moving charges. The two different reference frames gives
two different experimental outcomes:
1) Force is present
2) No force is present (Both can’t be correct!)
Maxwell and Einstein

From experimental results we know that the charge +q will experience a force. Since the two reference frames gives
two different results only one which is right, something is wrong here.

We will see, later on, that the solution to this involves the contraction of space, which changes the spacing of the
electric charges in the wire, actually creates a magnetic force on the charge +q even when it appears to be
stationary. We will leave this for later.

The change in spacing of the charges in the wire causes a

changing electric field to be produced which in turn causes a
changing magnetic field which is what all Electromagnetic
radiation consists of.
Maxwell and Einstein

In 1861 James Clerk Maxwell presented a paper which established the connection between, electrostatics,
magnetism, and the speed of light. With 4 equations, he forever linked these three quantities together. However there
was one stipulation in his equations, light (and all EM waves) have to travel at a constant speed of light (c = 3.00 x
108 m/s)

Maxwell’s equations clearly show what light is made of and how it’s
wave properties can travel through space. A changing electric field
induces (creates) a changing magnetic field, which in turns creates
another changing electric field. This is how light propagates through
empty space.
Maxwell and Einstein

This constant speed of light immediately presents a problem for Galilean physicists.

Ball
V = 20.0 m/s Stationary Observer

Ok with Galilean
V = 5.0 m/s V = 5.0 + 20.0 = 25.0 m/s
physics

light c
Stationary Observer

V = 0.5 c + 1.0 c = 1.5 c ????

V = 0.5 c

But Maxwell showed that light can only travel at 1.0 c …. We have
a problem here!
Maxwell and Einstein

Maxwell equations and the speed of light were clearly at odds with Galilean and Newtonian Physics!

Einstein had a brilliant insight. Maxwell formulas are correct and Galilean Physics is wrong!

This brings us to the second postulate of relativity:

The speed of light is a constant in a medium no matter what the light source
or the observer is doing! (c = 3.00 x 108 m/s)

As you soon see this has completely changed the notion of an absolute space and time and will lead to a
whole slew of sometimes challenging consequences.
The Lorentz Transformation

To account for the special changes that occur when an object is in motion relative to another object a
conversion factor called the Lorentz factor is used.
Where:
1
γ =
v = speed of one inertial reference frame
1 - v2/c2 c = speed of light
γ

The value of γ approaches infinity as v = c. The value of

γ is equal to 1.0 at ordinary speeds (up to 0.20 C).

1.0 If Galilean physics were true this graph would show a

horizontal straight line at value γ = 1.0.
0.5 1.0
v/c
The Lorentz Transformation

The Lorentz factor is used to modify the Galilean expressions:

x’ = γ(x – vt) and Δt’ = γ Δt

These equations involving x and x’ are used to translate from a position in one frame to the position in the
other frame at the same instant in time. In Galilean transformations, lengths measured within one frame
transform without change into the same length in any other frame because length Δx is the difference between
two positions and:

Δx = x2 – x1 = (x1’ – vt) = x1’ - x2’ = Δx’

The Lorentz Transformation

In the Lorentz transformation this equality of Δx and Δx’ is no longer true!

Δx’ = γ(Δx - vΔt)

This is crucial because it means that an observer making length measurements in one inertial reference
frame that is moving at a constant velocity relative to another reference frame, will not agree with the
length measure by an observer from that reference frame!

Space is no longer some absolute quantity that can be

measured to some absolute length.
The Lorentz Transformation

The expression shown earlier: Δx’ = γ(Δx - vΔt) is used to measure position of an object
in a moving reference frame as measured by a stationary observer.

Sometimes we observe the positon in the moving reference frame and want to know the length in the
stationary reference frame. In this case we use the inverse Lorentz Transformation: x = γ(x’ + vt)

Like space, time is also not absolute and depends on the motion of the observer relative to the clock
measuring the time. Different reference frames moving inertially to each other will measure different
times for the same occurring event!
v
The Lorentz transformation for time is: t’ = γ(t - x)
c2

-v
The inverse Lorentz transformation for time is: t = γ(t’ + x’)
c 2
 The Lorentz Transformation
To sum up the Galilean and Lorentz transformations:

Galilean Lorentz Reverse Lorentz

In each case, if v << c, then γ =
x’ = x - vt v v 1 and the Lorentz equations
x’ = γ(x - ct) x = γ(x’ + ct’) reduce to the Galilean
c c
equations. Which is what we
experience in every day life!
y’ = y y’ = y y = y’
z’ = z z’ = z z = z’

t’ = t -v -v
t = γ(t - x) t = γ(t + x) Note the inclusion of ct in these
c 2
c 2
tables. This will help us
understand ct vs x axes to draw
v v space-time diagrams later on.
ct’ = γ(ct - x) ct = γ(ct’ + x)
c c
 The Lorentz Transformation
Examples:

1. Calculate the Lorentz factor for objects travelling at:

a) 2.5 x 108 m/s (ans: 1.81)
b) 0.50c (ans: 1.15
c) 0.98c (ans: 5.03)
d) 0.99999c (ans: 223.60)

2. What happens to the Lorentz factor when v << c.

Ans: Lorentz factor = 1 and all observers would see the same thing (all are in same
reference frame)

3. What happens to the Lorentz factor when v = c. What does this imply for objects trying to travel at
the speed of light?

Ans: γ = undefined! Objects that have mass can not travel at the speed of light!
The Lorentz Transformation

3. Clocks in two frames of reference S’ and S are adjusted so that when x = x’ = 0, t =t’ = 0. Frame S’ has a
speed of 0.90 relative to S.

Event 1 occurs at x1 = 75 m, y1 = 0, z1 = 0, and t1 = 0.50 µs.

Event 1 occurs at x2 = 160 m, y2 = 0, z2 = 0, and t2 = 0.75 µs.

Calculate, as measured in S’:

a) The distance between x1 and x2

b) The time interval between t1 and t2.
 The Lorentz Transformation

Solution:
1 1
a) Lorentz factor γ = γ = γ = 2.294
1 - v2/c2 1 - 0.902/c2

From the Lorentz transformation: x2’ – x1’ = γ((x2 - x1) - v(t2 -t1))

x2’ – x1’ = 2.294((160 - 75) - 0.90 x 3.00 x108(8.5 x 10-7s - 5.0 x 10-7s))

x2’ – x1’ = 2.294(85 - 0.90 x 3.00 x108(3.5 x 10-7s))

x2’ – x1’ = 2.294 x 17.5

x2’ – x1’ = 40.1 m (Compared to 85 m as measured in reference frame S)

 The Lorentz Transformation

Solution:

b) From the Lorentz transformation: t2’ – t1’ = γ((t2 - t1) - (-v(x2 -x1)/c2))

t2’ – t1’ = 2.294((2.5 x 10-7) - - 0.90 x 3.00x108(85)/(3.00 x 108)2)

t2’ – t1’ = 2.294(2.5 x 10-7 + 2.55 x 10-7)

t2’ – t1’ = 2.294(5.05 x 10-9)

t2’ – t1’ = 1.16 x 10-6s (1.1 µs)

(Compared to 25 µs as measured in reference frame S)

Velocity Addition

Imagine a spaceship travelling at 0.80c relative to a stationary Bart. The spaceship shoots a missile
forward at a speed of 0.50c relative to itself as measured by those on board the spaceship. What speed
would Bart say the missile travels at?

If you use Galilean Physics you would get:

umB = 0.80c + 0.50c = 1.30c ???

us = 0.80c um = 0.50c

But this is not possible as the speed of light is the

maximum speed an object can have! Remember Einstein's
uB = 0 second postulate.
Velocity Addition

In order to solve this dilemma we need to use Lorentz transformations.

xmB
UmB =
tmB
And from the Lorentz transformations equations:

γ(xs + vts)
UmB = And by substituting: xs = usts
v
γ(ts + x s)
c 2

We would get the following equation:

Velocity Addition

us + v
umB =
usv
1 +
c2 For the inverse case of observer on board the spaceship
measuring the speed of the missile in Bart’s frame would
need to use:
0.80c + 0.50c
umB =
.80c x 0.50 c umB - v
1 +
c2 us =
umBv
1 -
umB = 0.93 c c2