Plant Microbe interaction

By SK Banja

SK Banja (C) 2021

What are Microbes?
Microbes are minute, unicellular organisms that are invisible to the
naked eye. They are also known as microorganisms or microscopic
organisms as they could only be seen under a microscope. They
make up almost 60% of the earth’s living matter. 
The term “microbes” is used to describe several different life forms
with different sizes and characteristics. Few of these microbes
include: Bacteria, Fungi, Protists ,Viruses, and Archaea
Microbes can be useful as well as harmful. Certain microbes cause
severe infections and diseases and can also spoil food and other
materials. While others play an important role in maintaining
environmental balance. SK Banja (C) 2021
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Factors affecting plant microbe interaction

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 Types of interactions
There are five types of interactions between different species as
listed below:
Competition & Predation
Commensalism
Parasitism
Mutualism
Amensalism
Types of plant-microbe interactions
The interaction between plants and microbes can be termed as;
• Mutualistic (Good): interaction where the plant benefits from the
microbes

• Parasitic (Bad) : interactions where the plant suffers

• Commensalistic (Divers): this is a type of interaction where the

plant serve as habitat for microbial communities
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 Plant-microbe interaction
• Plants are motile but they constantly encounter both the
biotic and abiotic stress. There is a constant war
between the pathogenic microbes and the host plant-the
outcome of which determines resistance or disease.
• Plants secrete various organic compound resulting in a
nutritionally enriched environment favourable for
microbial growth.
• As a result plants are heavily colonized with a diversity
of microbes whose reservoirs primarily the soil.
• Microbes that colonises plants are either epiphytes
(colonizing plant surface) or endophytes (colonises
plants interior)
• Microbial communities influence plants directly and
indirectly SK Banja (C) 2021
Mutualistic interactions

• Nitrogen-fixing baceria
• Mycorrhizal fungi
• Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR)
• Biocontrol organisms
• Mycoparasitic fungi and protozoa

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Harmful interaction
Pathogens are agents of disease. Alternatively, they are
regarded as disease causing organisms. These infectious
microorganisms, such as fungi, bacteria and nematodes
survive on plants and damage their tissues.
Plants have developed a variety of strategies to discourage
or kill pathogens.

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Types of diseases
Fungal disease
Fungi digest living cells and destroy them. This combined
with the responses of the cells to the damage caused by the
fungus gives the symptom of disease.
Viral disease
Viruses take over the metabolism of the cell. The viral
genetic material gets into the host cell and is inserted into
the host DNA. The virus then uses the host cell to make
new viruses which the burst out.
Bacteria diseases
Most bacteria produce toxins that poison or damage the
host cell in some way, causing disease. Some bacterial
toxins damage the host cells by breaking down the cell
membranes, some damageSKor inactivate enzymes.
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Plant defense against microbes
• The first line of defense in plants is an intact and
impenetrable barrier composed of bark and a waxy cuticle
which serves as protection against pathogens.

• This physical barriers, made up of different substances

(wax, cutin and polysaccharide (cellulose), must be
overcome by a pathogen before it can enter a plant cell.

• A plants exterior defense can be compromised by

mechanical damage, which may provide an entry point for
pathogens.

• If the first line of defense is breached, the plant must resort

to a different set of defense mechanism.
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Other defense mechanisms include:
Insect repellents-for example, pine resin and citronella from lemon
grass
Insecticides–for example, pyrethrins- these are made by
chrysanthemums and act as insect neurotoxins; and caffeine-toxic to
insect and fungi.
Antibacterial compounds: including antibiotics-for example,
phenols-antiseptics made in different plants; antibacterial gossypol
produced by cotton; defensins-plant proteins that disrupt bacterial and
fungal cell membranes; lysosomes-organelles containing enzymes that
break down bacteria cell walls.
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Antifungal compounds-for example phenols-antiseptics
made in different plants; antibacterial gossypol produced by
cotton; caffeine -toxic to insect and fungi; saponins-
chemicals in many plant cells membranes; chitinases-
enzymes that break down the chitin in fungal cell walls.

General toxins-some plants make chemicals that can be

broken down to form cyanide compounds when the plant
cell is attacked. Cyanide is toxic to most living things
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 Protein and factors involved
PLANT CELL  ACTION PATHOGEN IMMUNITY

Pattern Recognition Recognises Pathogen PAMP/MAMP

Receptor (PRR) Associated Triggered Immunity
Molecular (PTI)
Pattern/Microbe
Associated
Molecule Pattern
(PAMP/MAMP)

R-gene which Detects Pathogen Effectors Effector Triggered

expresses R-PROTEIN Immunity (ETI)
(resistance protein)

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Fig 1: Plant cellular response
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 Steps
1. The plant is infected with a pathogen
2. Some molecules (PAMP/MAMP) from the pathogen are recognised
by Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) in the cell membrane of the
plant
3. When pathogenic enzymes break down the cell wall, the breakdown
molecules can be recognised triggering the PTI
4. Pathogens can also inject certain molecules (effector molecules) into
the cell so as to hijack the cell the pathogen effectors are detected by
Nuclear Binding Leucine Rich Repeat protein (NB-LRR)
5. Signaling molecules alert the nucleus to initiate the expression of the
defense gene. 6. Polysaccharides (callose & lignin) are produced to help
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 Detailed explanation
• Pathogen-derived conserved molecules known as
MAMPs are detected by plasma membrane–located
PRRs, and this recognition triggers PTI.

• Pathogens interfere with immune signaling through

effectors to induce susceptibility, and this is known as
effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS).

• In return, plants have evolved effector recognition

proteins (R proteins) that trigger an immune reaction
following effector recognition to stop pathogen growth,
and this phenomenon is known as ETI.
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• The detection of this molecules by NB-LRR ,
activates the R-GENE causing ion flux (efflux of
hydroxide and potassium ion and the influx of
calcium and hydrogen ion.

• This ultimately leads to hypersensitive response

which either activates the transcription of pytoalexins
and chitinases (Reactive oxygen species) to degrade
the cell wall of the pathogen or activates hormonal
signaling.

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Pathogens and hormone signaling pathways

• Nectrophic pathogens –induces the Jasmonic

pathway
• Biotrophyic pathogen induces the salicylic acid
pathway
• Both pathways induces the transcription of
Pathogenesis Related Genes (P-R Genes)
which are defense genes which codes for PR
protein to combat pathogen infection.

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When plants are attacked by pathogens they produce high levels of
a polysaccharide called callose
within minutes of an attack, callose is synthesised and deposited
between the cell walls and the cell membrane in cells next to the
infected cells. These callose papillae act as barriers preventing the
pathogens entering the cells around the site of infection. Lignin is
added, making the mechanical barrier to invasion even thicker and
stronger.

Callose blocks sieve plates in the phloem, sealing off the infected part
and preventing the spread of pathogens. Callose is deposited in the
plasmodesmata between infected cells and their neighbours, sealing
them off from the healthy cells and helping to prevent the pathogen
spreading.

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 Reasons for studying plant microbe
interactions
• To enable the understanding of plant health in the
presence and absence of microbes
• To reduce the use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides
• To understand how plants growth-promoting
microbes exert their beneficial effects
• To understand how plant pathogens can cause
diseases
• To empower the optimization of plant cultivation and
provide food for the ever-growing populations.

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 Cellular Interactions

Learning objectives
At the end of this topic students should be able to know
• The concept of cellular interactions
• Types of cellular communication
• Steps in cellular communication
• Types of responses in cellular communication

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 Introduction
• Protein and genes
• Genes carry instruction for making protein
• Proteins are three dimensional (3D) structures
• Their shape determines their function

Cell interactions is the ability of cells to communicate

with one another

Ways of cellular communication

• Cellular Adhesion
• Cell to cell (Signal transduction)
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Cellular Adhesion

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Cell to Cell Communication by Signal Transduction

Cell membrane protein

• The cell membrane has many receptors on the surface

• Most receptors are proteins

• Their shape is like a lock

• Molecules that fit into receptors are like keys

• Receptors can cause membrane protein to open like a gate or can

stimulate another protein on the inside of the membrane to

continue sending the message

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 Cell to cell communication
• Receptors are protein molecules inside the target cell or
on its surface that receive a chemical signal. Chemical
signals are released by signaling cells in the form of small,
usually volatile or soluble molecules called ligands.

•  A ligand is a molecule that binds another specific

molecule, in some cases, delivering a signal in the
process. Ligands can thus be thought of as signaling
molecules. Ligands and receptors exist in several varieties;
however, a specific ligand will have a specific receptor
that typically binds only that ligand.
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 Types of cellular communication

Cells use different types of signaling depending on which cells they want
to reach
• Synaptic: the sending and receiving cells have built a synaptic structure
bringing their cells in close contact for easy exchange of signals.

• Autocrine: self signaling-the cell sends signals from one cell membrane
area to the another (similar to paracrine signaling, but the target cell is the
signaling cell).

• Paracrine: adjacent signaling-the signaling cell secretes a chemical that

diffuses to locally target cells.

• Endocrine: distant signaling-endocrine signaling produces a hormone

that travels throughout the organism via the circulatory system.

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 Types of receptors
• There are two basic types of receptors: 
i. Internal receptors and
ii. Cell surface receptors
• Internal receptors are found in the cytoplasm of the cell and respond to
ligands that cross the cell membrane into the cell. These receptors can
have a direct effect on protein production by binding directly to the DNA.

• Cell-surface receptors are found on the cell membrane. They bind to

ligands that do not cross the cell membrane. After the ligand binds, the
receptor responds in some way.
• One response is to open a channel to allow ions to pass through the
membrane.
• A second response is to activate an enzyme that sets off a response inside
the cell.
• A third response is to activate a protein which is not an enzyme, but which
can affect other cell components.
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Types of cell surface receptors
-G protein-coupled receptors
-Receptor Tyrosine kinase
-Ion channel receptors SK Banja (C) 2021
• Once a ligand binds to a receptor, the signal is transmitted through the

membrane and into the cytoplasm. Continuation of a signal in this

manner is called signal transduction. Signal transduction only occurs

with cell-surface receptors because internal receptors are able to

interact directly with DNA in the nucleus to initiate protein synthesis.

• Signal transduction pathways can be extremely complicated and

involve large numbers of enzymes and other proteins. These pathways

can help amplify a signal received by one receptor. There can also be

different effects from the same ligand in different cell types due to

different proteins present in different types of cells.

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 Overview of cell signaling
• Cells signal one another with chemicals
• Receptors proteins embedded in the plasma membrane change
shape when they bind specific signal molecules, triggering a chain
of events within the cell.
• Cells signalling can occur between adjacent cells or chemical
signals called hormones act over long distances.
• Intracellular receptors
• Cellular communication is a multistage process that includes the
following:
1. sending the chemical signal (primary message)
2. Receiving the signal at the target cells outer membrane receptors
3. Relaying the signal into through target cells interior (secondary
message)
4. Changing the target cells behavior
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 Stages in signaling
Cell signaling can be divided into 3 stages.

1. Reception: A cell (receptor) detects a signaling molecule

(ligand) from the outside of the cell.

2. Transduction: When the signaling molecule (ligand) binds the

receptor it changes the receptor protein in some way.

3.Response: The relay molecules, which act as the secondary

messengers, carry the information to the target site and influence
cellular response (e.g. gene expression to produce given proteins
etc) SK Banja (C) 2021
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 Transduction
• To change from one form to another
• Messages on the outside the cell are
transduced and carried through the
membrane and carried to the inside
• Messages can be ‘go” or “stop”

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• Kinases are a type of enzyme that adds a phosphate
group to another molecule (including other proteins).
This is called phosphorylation. Phosphorylation can
activate or deactivate other proteins.

• Second messengers are small molecules that help to

spread a signal through the cytoplasm after a ligand
binds to a receptor. They do this by altering the
behavior of certain cellular proteins.

• Some examples of second messengers are cyclic AMP

or cAMP (a modified version of AMP, which is
related to ATP but only contains one phosphate) and
calcium ions. SK Banja (C) 2021
 Types of cellular responses to signals
There are several categories of cellular responses to signals.
• Changes in gene expression: an increase or decrease in the production of
a protein produced by a specific gene.
• An increase in cellular metabolism: the conversion of glucose to
glycogen (and back) can be regulated depending on the energy needs of
the cell.
• Cell growth: cells do not normally divide unless they are stimulated by
signals from other cells.
• Cell death: apoptosis is controlled cell death; cells can be stimulated to
die if they are abnormal, infected with a bacteria or virus, or during
specific parts of development (for example, to separate the fingers).
• Stopping cell signaling pathways at the right time is just as important as
starting them correctly.  

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