Shielded-Metal Arc Welding

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding

 The shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW) process is commonly
known as the ‘‘stick welding process.’’
 The metal coalescence is produced by the heat from an electric
arc that is maintained between the tip of a flux-coated, or
‘‘covered,’’ discontinuous consumable called a ‘‘stick’’ electrode,
and the surface of the base metal being welded.
 A core wire conducts the electric current from a constant current
power supply to the arc and provides most of the filler metal to
the joint.
 Some portion of the arc heat is lost to the electrode by
conduction, and some power is lost to I2R heating of the
electrode.
Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process
 The covering, coating, or flux on an SMAW electrode performs
many functions.

1. First, it provides a gaseous shield to protect the molten metal of

the weld from the air. This shielding gas is generated by the
thermal decomposition of the coating, which may be of several
types: cellulosic, which generates H2, CO, H2O, and CO2; rutile
(TiO2), which generates up to 40% H2; or limestone (CaCO3),
which generates CO2 and CaO slag and little or no H2 and so is
known as a low-hydrogen type. The different types are selected
for different applications, where hydrogen can or cannot be
tolerated.
2. Second, the coating provide deoxidizers and fluxing or reducing agents (as
molten compounds of metals) to deoxidize, denitrify, and cleanse the
molten weld metal, as in metallurgical refining. Once solidified, the slag
that is formed from the flux protects the already solidified but still hot and
reactive weld metal from oxidation. It also aids out-of-position welding by
providing a shell, or mold, in which molten weld metal can solidify.

3. Third, the coating provides arc stabilizers in the form of readily ionizable
compounds (e.g., potassium oxalate or lithium carbonate) to help initiate
the arc and keep the arc steady and stable by helping conduct current by
providing a source of ions and electrons.

4. Fourth, the coating can provide alloying elements or grain refiners and/or
metal fillers to the weld. The former help achieve and control the
composition and/or microstructure of the weld, while the latter increase
the rate of deposition of filler metal.
 SMAW can operate with DC power sources (with electrode positive or negative),
or AC power sources, depending on the coating design. Typically, currents range
from 50–300 amperes, largely based on electrode core wire diameter, at 10–30
volts, resulting in 1–10 kg (2–20 lb.) per hour deposition rates.

Advantages of SMAW

 It is simple, portable, and requires inexpensive equipment (i.e., power supply,

electrode holder, and cables).

 The process is versatile, enabling joining or coating for restoring dimensions or

enhancing wear resistance (i.e., hardfacing or wear-facing) for fabrication,
assembly, maintenance, or repair, in the plant or in the field.

Shortcomings of SMAW

 it offers only limited shielding protection and limited deposition rates compared
to many other arc welding processes, and it is usually performed manually rather
than automatically.

 Like all manual welding processes, but even more than most, SMAW requires
considerable operator skill for the best results.
Gas-Metal Arc Welding
 Gas-Metal Arc Welding

 The gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) process uses a continuous solid wire
electrode and an externally supplied inert shielding gas. A schematic of the
process is shown in Figure 2.2. The consumable solid wire electrode
provides all the filler to the weld joint. The externally supplied shielding
gas plays dual roles in GMAW. First, it protects the arc and the molten or
hot cooling weld metal from air and, second, it provides desired arc
characteristics through its effect on ionization.

 A variety of gases e.g., argon, helium, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen,

occasionally with a small amount of oxygen added can be used, depending
on the reactivity of the metal being welded, the design of the joint, and
the specific arc characteristics that are desired.

 A variety of DC power sources can also be used, hooked up as shown in

Figure 2.2. Either DCSP (DCEN) or DCRP (DCEP) may be used, depending
on the particular wire and desired mode of molten metal transfer.
Figure 2.2 Schematic illustration of the gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) process
 A distinct advantage of GMAW is that the mode of molten metal transfer
from the consumable wire electrode can be intentionally changed and
controlled through a combination of shielding gas composition, power
source type, electrode type and form and feed rate into the arc, and arc
current and voltage.
 There are three predominant metal transfer modes: spray, globular, and
short circuiting.
 The spray transfer mode is characterized by an axial transfer of fine,
discrete molten particles or droplets from the consumable electrode to the
workpiece at rates of several hundred per second. The metal transfer is
very stable, directional, and essentially free of spatter.
 Spray transfer is produced by welding in the DC electrode positive mode at
high voltages (typically 27–30 v) and amperages above some critical value
related to the wire’s diameter.
 Argon or argon–helium mixtures are usually used when welding reactive
metals like aluminum, titanium, and magnesium, while small amounts of
carbon dioxide (e.g., 20%) or oxygen (e.g., 2%) are usually added when
welding ferrous alloys to stabilize the arc and give the weld a better, more
regular contour.
Figure 2.3 Schematic representation of the various molten metal transfer modes found
in GMAW and other consumable electrode arc welding processes; (a) drop or globular
transfer, (b) repelled globular transfer, (c) short-circuiting transfer, (d) projected spray
transfer, (e) streaming spray transfer, and (f) rotating spray transfer.
 The globular, short-circuit, and pulsed-arc transfer modes
use the direct current electrode negative operating (DCEN or
DCSP) mode, while the spray transfer mode usually uses the
electrode positive (DCEP or DCRP) mode to enhance melting
of the consumable electrode. The various molten metal
transfer modes are shown schematically in Figure 2.3
 In summary, the GMAW process offers flexibility and
versatility, can be readily automated, requires less
manipulative skill than SMAW, and enables high deposition
rates (i.e., 5–20 kg (10–40 lb.) per hour) and efficiencies
(i.e., 70–85%).
 The greatest shortcoming of the process is that the power
supplies typically required are expensive
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding
 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) or ‘‘open-arc welding’’ is similar to
SMAW in that it is self-shielding. However, the gas- and flux-
generating ingredients are contained in the core of a roll-formed or
drawn tubular wire, rather than on the outside of a core wire as a
coating.
 The cored wire serves as a continuous consumable electrode, with
the filler in the core fulfilling the same functions as the coating in
SMAW, namely, providing shielding gases, slag-forming ingredients,
arc stabilizers, and alloy additions and deposition-rate enhancers.
 The self-shielding provided by the generation of gases from the core
through the arc is more effective than when such gases are
generated from an external coating.
 By the time gas that is generated reaches the air to be swept away,
it has fulfilled its shielding function. For this reason, FCAW is an
excellent choice for welding in the field, and it is here that it got its
name, ‘‘open-arc welding.’’
Figure 2.4 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process, operating
either self-shielded or gas-shielded
 The FCAW process can also be operated in a gas-shielded mode,
in which case it is closely related to the gas-metal arc welding
(GMAW) process.
 Both GMAW and FCAW use a continuous consumable electrode,
both provide filler, and both use an externally provided inert gas
to shield the arc and the weld metal.
 In either mode, FCAW can be operated with DC power supplies,
with the electrode positive or negative, depending on the
particular wire type and formulation
 Figure 2.4 schematically illustrates the self-shielded and gas-
shielded forms of FCAW.
 Process advantages include the following: high deposition rates
(from 2–20 kg (5–40 lb.) per hour), with actual rates being high
due to the continuous operation at higher currents than SMAW;
larger, better-contoured welds than SMAW; portability; and
excellent suitability for use in the field, even in extreme
conditions.
Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding
 Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding
 Gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW) uses a permanent, non-
consumable tungsten electrode to create an arc to the workpiece.
 This electrode is shielded by an inert gas such as argon or helium to
prevent electrode degradation by oxidation, hence its older, common
names, ‘‘tungsten inert gas (TIG)’’ and ‘‘heli-arc’’ welding.
 As shown in Figure 2.5, current from a power supply is passed to the
tungsten electrode in a torch (shown in Figure 6.12) through a
contact tube. The tube is usually water-cooled copper to prevent
overheating.
 The gas-tungsten arc welding process can be performed with or
without filler (i.e., autogenously). When no filler is used, joints must
be thin and tight-fitting square butts
 The GTAW process can be operated in several different current
modes, including direct current (DC) with the electrode negative
(EN) or positive (EP), or alternating current (AC).
 These different current modes result in distinctly different arc and
weld characteristics.
 In DCSP or DCEN, electrons are emitted from the tungsten electrode
and are accelerated to very high velocities and kinetic energy while
traveling through the arc. These high-energy electrons collide with
the workpiece, give up their kinetic energy, and generate
considerable heat in the work.
 Consequently, DCSP results in deep-penetrating, narrow welds but
with higher workpiece heat input. About two-thirds of the heat
available from the arc (after losses from various sources) enters the
work.
 High heat input to the workpiece may or may not be desirable,
depending on such factors as required weld penetration (dependent
on joint thickness), required weld width (dependent on joint fit up),
workpiece mass (dependent on part size and section thickness),
workpiece thermal conductivity (high conductivity needing higher
heat input), susceptibility to heat-induced defects, and concern for
distortion or residual stresses (with high heat input being problematic
in both regards).
 In DCRP, on the other hand, the heating effect of the much higher
kinetic energy electrons is on the tungsten electrode rather than on
the workpiece.
 Hence, larger, water-cooled electrode holders are required, shallow
welds are produced, and workpiece heat input can be kept low.
 This operating mode is good for welding thin sections or heat-
sensitive metals and alloys.
 This mode also results in a scrubbing action on the workpiece by the
large positive ions that strike its surface, removing oxide and cleaning
the surface.
 This mode is preferred for welding metals and alloys that oxidize
easily, such as aluminum and magnesium.
 The DCSP mode is much more common than the DCRP for non-
consumable electrode processes like GTAW and PAW, while the DCRP
mode is much more common for consumable electrode processes like
GMAW, SMAW, and FCAW, since the extra heat appearing in the
electrode facilitates its melting to become needed filler.
 There is, however, a third mode, using alternating current, or AC. This
mode tends to give some of the characteristics of both of the DC
modes during the corresponding half-cycles, but with some bias
toward the straight polarity half-cycle.
 During negative half-cycle, the current tends to be higher because
of the extra emission of electrons from the smaller, sharper, hotter
electrode versus a large, blunter, cooler workpiece.
 In the AC mode, reasonably good penetration is obtained, along
with some oxide cleaning action. Figure 2.7 schematically
summarizes the characteristics of the various current or operating
modes of the GTAW process
 The electron emission of tungsten electrodes is occasionally
enhanced by adding 1–2% of thorium oxide or cerium oxide to the
tungsten.
 This addition improves the current carrying capacity of the
electrode, results in less chance of contamination of the weld by
expulsion of tungsten as a result of localized melting of the
electrode and allows easier arc initiation.
 While both argon and helium are used for shielding with the GTAW
process, argon offers better shielding because it is heavier and stays
on the work. Arc initiation is also easier because the required
ionization potential is lower than for helium. The advantage of
helium is a hotter arc.
 In summary, the GTAW process is good for welding thin sections
because of its inherently low heat input.
 It offers better control of weld filler dilution by the substrate than
many other processes (again because of low heat input), and it is a
very clean process.
 Its greatest limitations are its limited penetration capability (typically
about 3–4 mm and slow deposition rate (typically less than 1 kg per
hour)
Figure 2.5 Schematic illustration of the electrical hookup of the GTAW process
Figure 2.6 Schematic illustration of a gas–tungsten arc welding torch, weld, and filler
wire.
Figure 2.7 Schematic illustration summarizing the characteristics of the various
operating modes for GTAW.
 Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is similar to gas–tungsten arc welding in that it, too, uses a non-
consumable tungsten electrode to produce an arc to a workpiece.
The difference is that in plasma arc welding the converging action of inert gas at an orifice in
the nozzle of the welding torch (see Figure 6.14) constricts the arc, resulting in several
advantages over the GTAW process.
These advantages include greater energy concentration (i.e., higher energy density) with
attendant higher heating intensity, deeper penetrating capability, higher welding speeds,
improved arc stability, and usually cleaner welds since the tip of the tungsten electrode
cannot accidentally be touched to the workpiece to cause contamination. Figure 6.15
schematically compares the GTAW and PAW processes.