Social Psychology and Group Dynamics

Course
Course Code: Ag Ex 332
Credit Hours: 2
Target Group: Mid Career Year II
School: RDAI
Academic Year: 2021/2022

January 2022
Haramaya University, Haramaya
 Psychology-Concept and Nature
• The term 'psychology', derived from two Greek words:
Psyche=soul or mind; logos=study.
= the study of mind

• It is defined as ' the study of: cognitions, emotions,

human experience and mental life.

• It studies the behavior of human beings and other

animals= scientific study of behavior

• Behavior refers to both overt and covert action of

individuals
 Goals of psychological research
• Describing behavior by observing

• Explaining behavior

• Predicting behavior

• Controlling behavior

• Improve – intentionally improve a person’s life,

not make it worse.
Definitions and concepts of Social psychology
• It is a branch of psychology that studies cognitive,
affective, and behavioral processes of individuals 

• It is a systematic body of knowledge focusing on:

 social thinking,
 social influence
 social relations.

• Its fundamental theme is to discover:

 how very different people act very similarly.
how very similar people act very differently.
Definitions and concepts of Social psychology
• Scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and
causes of individual behavior in social situations.

• It is to do with the way certain behavior, feelings,

thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed
and how such psychological factors, in turn, influence
our interactions with others

• It is the scientific study of how people's thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual,
imagined, or implied presence of others
 Activity 1
How do the actual, imagined,
and implied presence of others
influence us?
Three Domain of Psychology
• Cognitively (thoughts)
• Affectively (emotions)
• Behaviorally (actions)
• The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all
psychological variables that are measurable in a human being.
• The statement that others' presence may be imagined or
implied suggests that we are prone to social influence even
when no other people are present, such as when watching
television, or following internalized cultural norms.
• Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a
result of the interaction of mental states and immediate social
situations.
 Factors Affecting Social Interaction
• Actions and characteristics of others

• Cognitive processes

• Environmental factors

• Cultural context and

• Biological factors.
 Actions and Characteristics of Others

• One person’s behavior and their characteristics

expressed in the behavior directly influence other
person’s feeling and action.

• For example, suppose you are standing on the railway

reservation line.

• If a stranger goes to the counter straightly without

standing on the line, it will defiantly create different
types of feelings and as well action from the people
who are already waiting in the line.
 Cognitive Processes

• The cognitive processes such as, perception, memory

and inferences play a key role on the understanding
of behavior of every individual in the society.

• If anybody wants to understand the causes of others

behavior in a social situation: understanding process
of those people when they behaved in social situation.

• For example, if your friend fixes an appointment with

you in a particular time. You are waiting for him at a
particular point in a particular time, if he comes late
what would be your reaction.
 Environmental Factors

• physical environment necessarily influences the feelings,

thoughts and behavior of everyone.
• The climatically conditions make a person either happy or sad.
• For example, if there is a continuous rain for a few days most
of the people’s day to day life gets disturbed.
• Another example is that people become more irritable and
aggressive when the weather is hot

• The environmental factors create different types of impact on

the perceptual experiences of individuals: cognitive, affective,
interpretive, and evaluative responses of individuals change
drastically.

• Further, if a person is exposes to a particular environment for a

long time he or she will adapt to that environment and will feel
habituated for that condition.
 Cultural Context

• People live in different cultural settings.

• Each culture comes out with its own rules and norms
• The practices followed in one culture will be different than
the other cultures.
• If a person is belongs to a particular culture, he/she has to
adapt appropriately the behavioral patterns accepted by
his/her culture.
• In all these process an individual is continuously
influenced by the culture from which he/she is hailing.
• some of the cultural specific behaviors expressed by every
culture includes:
 age attainment ceremony,
marriage ceremony,
funeral ceremony.
 Biological/Evolutionary Factors
• potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of
human behavior.

• Since the individuals evolutionarily differ on their

biological structures their social interactions will also
gets varied in nature.

• The biological inheritance usually affect ones

preferences, behaviors, emotions and attitudes.

• For example, hair color, skin color body structure

gets changed from person to person in a long run.
 Social Psychology and Extension

• Understanding human behavior is prime importance for rural

extension work.
• Rural extension work demands:
knowing the clients well,
establishing good rapport,
making them involved in planning, execution and evaluation of the
development projects, and
helping them to build up their capacity.
• Rural extension work involves:
 empathy,
 modifying attitudes and skills,
 motivating to change, and
 bringing about behavioral changes in desired directions,
 Social Psychology and Extension…cntd
• Farmers' behavior is complex and influenced by
a number of factors (attitudes, cognitions,
traditions, beliefs and value systems)

• Social psychology is important in rural extension

in terms of maintaining good interpersonal
relations with the clients and colleagues.

• It has to discuss the individual and group

behavior in response to the given stimuli of the
surrounding environment.
 Theories of Attribution
• Attribution is the process through which an individual seeks to
identify the causes of others behavior.
• It is an individual’s efforts to understand the causes behind others
behavior on some occasions.
• The theories of attribution analyses how people explain
other persons behavior.

• Three characteristics of attribution:

Locus of control-whether the cause is internal or external.
Stability(stable or unstable): it is the likelihood of changing
over time
Controllability: the extent to which people think they have
control over the situation
 Theories of Attribution…cntd
• The internal factor means dispositional factors such as the
particular person’s biological or psychological causes.

• The external factor means situational factors such as,

environment and other persons are the causes.

• The most common explanations for success and failure

are:
 Ability
 Effort
 Luck
 Task difficulty
 Theories of Attribution…cntd
Capability Locus of control Stability Controllability
Ability Internal Stable Uncontrollable
Effort Internal Unstable Controllable
Luck External Unstable Uncontrollable
Task difficulty External Stable Uncontrollable
 Attitudes
• Attitudes are relatively enduring beliefs or opinions
that predispose people to respond in a positive or
negative reactions to something.
• Attitudes are determinant or consequences of beliefs
and behavioral intentions
• Attitudes are made up of different components:
o The affective component: consists of emotional
reactions toward the attitude object
o The cognitive component: consists of thoughts and
beliefs about the attitude object
o The behavioral component: consists of actions or
observable behavior toward the attitude object
 Persuasion: Changing the Attitudes

• Persuasion is a process by which a message induces

change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
• It is the application of rational and/or emotional argument
to convince others to change their attitudes of behavior

• Process of persuasion contain in two distinct ways.

1. Systematic processing or the central route:
it involves careful consideration of message content and
the ideas it contains.
It is quite effortful, and absorbs much of our information.
 Persuasion….cntd
• Heuristic processing or the peripheral route:
• involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental
shortcuts – such as beautiful models For car promotion.
Or used the most powerful and prominent body.
• less effortful and allows us to react to persuasive
messages in an automatic manner.

Resistance to Persuasion
• Reactance
• Negative reaction threatens to one’s personal freedom.
Reactance often increases resistance to persuasion.
 Forewarning

• Forewarning often increases resistance to the

persuasion that follows.

• Forewarning provides more opportunity to formulate

counter arguments that can lessen the message’s
impact.
•  
Selective Avoidance
• It refers to a tendency of an individual to direct
his/her attention away from information that
challenges existing attitudes.

• Such avoidance increases resistance to persuasion.

 Social Influence
• Involves our social power
• Change his/her behavior to particular standard

• There are three main forms of social influence:

 Conformity
 Compliance
 Obedience
Conformity
• change in behavior due to real or imagined group
pressure
• No body commands/orders you to change your
behavior
 Conformity…cntd
• it is not just acting as other people act; it is being affected by
how they act
• Thus conformity is a change in behavior or belief to accord with
others.

• Reasons for conformity includes:

1. normative influence: accepted to the society
2. information influence

• Factors that affect conformity:

• Group size: as group size increases the degree of conformity
decreases
• Increasing the number of people beyond five yields diminishing
returns.
 Conformity…cntd
• Group cohesiveness: the degree of intimacy,
bond, ties

• Status: Higher status people tend to have

some impact on lower status people.
• Sometimes people actually avoid agreeing
with low status or stigmatized people.
 Compliance

• It is outward conformity

• due to request /order/ from someone

• The person that request you must be higher than you

• Acceptance sometimes follows compliance

• Acceptance-both acting and believing in accordance

with social pressure

• To comply primarily implies to reap a reward or

avoid a punishment
 Techniques for Gaining Compliance
• Friendship liking:
• willing to comply with requests from friends or from people we
like than with requests from strangers or people we don’t like.
• Commitment consistency
• Once we have committed ourselves to a position or action,
• we are more willing to comply with requests for behaviors that
are consistent with this position or action than with requests that
are inconsistent with it.
• Scarcity
• In general, we value, and try to secure, outcomes or objects that
are scare or decreasing in their availability.
• As a result, we are more likely to comply with requests that focus
on scarcity than whit ones that make no reference to this issue.
 Techniques for Gaining Compliance …cntd
• Reciprocity
• We are generally more willing to comply with a request from
someone who has previously provided a favor or concession to us
than to oblige someone who has not.

• Social validation
• We are generally more willing to comply with a request for some
action if this action is consistent with what we believe persons
similar to ourselves doing for thinking.

• Authority
• we are more willing to comply with requests from someone who
holds legitimate authority – or who simply appears to do so.
 Tactics based on Friendship or Liking: compliance
strategies
• Foot in the door Technique:
• start with small request, then gradually end up with larger
request
• A technique for gaining compliance in which requesters first
induce target persons to like them attempts to change their
behavior in some desired manner.
• Door in the face Technique:
• it is the reverse of foot in the door technique
• A procedure for gaining compliance in which requesters
begin with a large request and then, when this is refused,
retreat to a smaller one (the one they actually desired all
along).
 Obedience
• Change in behavior due to order from
someone who is higher than you(i.e high status
or power)
• If our compliance is to an explicit command,
we call it obedience
• Obedience, respect to the norms and values of
the society you are working with and a down
to earth character will help the agent win the
hearts and minds of the intervention
subjects/the community.
 Pro-social Behavior/Altruism
• Altruism- an unselfish concern for the welfare of others
• Pro-social-help for behavior
• aim to maximize one’s rewards and minimize one’s costs.
• Human beings exchange not only materials goods and
money but also social goods (love, services, information
and status).
• helping brings enormous internal rewards to the helper,
e.g helping reduces distress.
• gender, evolutionary perspectives, genuine altruism are
all influence the helping behavior of human beings.
 Bystander effect

• A person standing near but not taking part in

something
• as the number of bystanders’ increases, the likelihood
of any one bystander helping decreases and more
time passes before help does occur

• Steps in the decision to help in an emergency

1. Noticing the emergency: pay attention steps to
understand what happen in your environment
2. interpreting the situation as an emergency
3. Assuming responsibility to help
4. Knowing how to help
5. Deciding to help
 Personality Traits in Helping Behavior
• Personality is differences that exist between people
• It is qualities that make all people alike
• It is both inherent and acquired
• It includes behavioral characteristics that distinguish
one person from another
• There is individual differences in helpfulness
• Some people are reliably more helpful
• Those high in positive emotionality, empathy, and
self – efficacy are most likely to be concerned and
helpful.
• Personality influences how particular people react to
particular situations.
 Personality…cntd
• The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung focused more on
individual differences; distinguishing between two basic means
of modulating basic drives, introversion and extroversion.
• Introversion is the state of being predominantly interested in
one's own mental self.
• Extraversion is the state of primarily obtaining gratification
from outside oneself.
• almost no one can be accurately described as wholly introvert
or extrovert.
• Most persons fall somewhere between Jung’s two types—i.e.,
they are ambiverts, in whom introversive and extroversive
tendencies exist in a rough balance
 Extraversion

• Extraverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be

enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious.
• Extraverts are energized and thrive off being around other
people.
• They take pleasure in activities that involve large social
gatherings, such as parties, community activities, public
demonstrations, and business or political groups.
• They also tend to work well in groups.

• An extraverted person is likely to enjoy time spent with people

and find less reward in time spent alone.
• They tend to be energized when around other people, and they
are more prone to boredom when they are by themselves.
 Introversion

• Introverts are typically perceived as more reserved or reflective.

• Some popular psychologists have characterized introverts as people
whose energy tends to expand through reflection and dwindle during
interaction.
• Introverts often take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading,
writing, using computers, hiking and fishing.
• The archetypal artist, writer, sculptor, engineer, composer and
inventor are all highly introverted.

• An introvert is likely to enjoy time spent alone and find less reward
in time spent with large groups of people, though they may enjoy
interactions with close friends.
• They prefer to concentrate on a single activity at a time
• They are more analytical before speaking.
 Ambiversion

• many people view being introverted or extraverted as

mutually exclusive

• most contemporary trait theories measure levels of

extraversion-introversion as part of a single, continuous
dimension of personality, with some scores near one end,
and others near the half-way mark.
• Ambiversion is falling more or less directly in the middle.
• An ambivert is moderately comfortable with groups and
social interaction, but also relishes time alone, away from a
crowd.
 The Difference Between Introvert and Extravert
• An introvert is a person whose interest is generally
directed inward toward his own feelings and thoughts,
in contrast to an extravert, whose attention is directed
toward other people and the outside world.

• The typical introvert is shy, contemplative, and

reserved and tends to have difficulty adjusting to social
situations.

• Excessive daydreaming and introspection, careful

balancing of considerations before reaching decisions,
and withdrawal under stress are also typical of the
introverted personality.
 Introvert and Extravert…d/ce
• The extravert, by contrast, is characterized by
outgoingness, responsiveness to other persons, activity,
aggressiveness, and the ability to make quick decisions.
• Introverts are more interested in what’s going on within
their own thoughts and feelings where extroverts are
interested in what’s happening around them.
• Introverts need their own space while extroverts are
open and talkative.
• Introverts tend to have fewer friends while extroverts
easily make new friends and adapt to new groups
 Anti-social behavior/aggression/
• Opposite to pro-social behavior
• Aggression is any behavior that is intended to harm some
one/something
• Accidentally occurred action is not aggression

• Types of aggression
• Instrumental aggression: is an aggression that person
engage to get something in return
• Hostile aggression: the object is to hurt that individual
exclusively
• There is no goal
• Spontaneous
 Conflict
• Conflicts are natural in all walks of daily life – both
at workplace and home.

• both charming and maddening.

• occurs when individuals or groups are not obtaining
what they need or want and are seeking their own
self-interest.

• It is being defined as a process by few, an obstructive

behavior, and goal incompatibility by others.
• Conflict is a process, where perception leads to
disruption of desirable state of harmony and stability
in an interdependent world.
 Characteristics of Conflict

1. Conflict is a Process: Conflict occurs in ‘layers’.

• First layer is always misunderstanding.
• The other layers are differences of values,
• differences of viewpoint,
• differences of interest, and
• interpersonal differences.
2. Conflict is Inevitable: Conflict exists everywhere.
3. Conflict is a Normal Part of Life: Individuals, groups, and
organizations have unlimited needs and different values but
limited resources.
• Thus, this incompatibility is bound to lead to conflicts.
• The conflict is not a problem, but if it is poorly managed
then it becomes a problem.
 Characteristics of Conflict
4. Perception
• It must be perceived by the parties to it, otherwise it does not
exist.
• What we perceive and think affects our behaviour, attitudes, and
communication. 
5. Opposition
• One party to the conflict must be perceiving or doing something
the other party does not like or want.
6. Interdependence and Interaction
• Conflict occurs only when some kind of interaction takes place.
7. Everyone is inflicted with Conflict
• Conflict may occur within an individual, between two or more
individuals, groups or between organizations.
 Causes/ Reasons/Sources of Conflicts

• Difference of opinion
• It is a conflict between convergent thinking (ability
to narrow the number of possible solutions to a
problem) and divergent thinking (thinking outwards
instead of inward).
• Status
• When there is a need for status and a “wrong”
person is promoted.
• Incongruence:
• A party is required to engage in an activity that is
incongruent with his or her needs or interests.
 Causes of Conflicts….cntd
•Incompatibility
•A party holds behavioural preferences like attitudes, values,
skills, goals, and perceptions, the satisfaction of which is
incompatible with another person’s implementation of his or her
preferences.
•Stress
• Conflicts from stress from external sources; i.e., functional or
dysfunctional situations.
•Poor or inadequate organizational structure and lack of
teamwork.
•Seeking Power
•Often a conflict for power struggle takes place when everyone
wants to be a leader and nobody wants to be a follower.
 Causes of Conflicts….cntd

•Weak Leadership
•Lack of transparency and openness creates dissatisfaction
among the affected people.
•Differing viewpoints among colleagues about each
other
• In case of joint action two parties may have partially
exclusive behavioural preferences.
•Managerial Actions
•Poor communication (employees being not informed of
new decisions, not involved in decision making, etc);
•insufficient resources;
•Rigidity and dislike between managers and employees
 Conflict Management

• refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts.

• It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle
grievances
• Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip,
ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance.
• It is often considered to be distinct from conflict resolution.
• It involves acquiring skills related to:
• conflict resolution,
• self-awareness about conflict modes,
• conflict communication skills, and
• establishing a structure for management of conflict in your
environment.’
 Conflict Management Styles

1. Avoidance
• It is non-assertive and non-cooperative.
• The manager may think or pretend that no conflict exists or just ignore
it.
• A turtle is a symbol for avoidance, because it can avoid everything by
pulling its head and legs into the shell to be off to everything.

2. Accommodating
• Accommodating is non-assertive and cooperative,
• just opposite of competing.
• It is accepting other’s view point.
• A chameleon is a symbol of the accommodating style since it changes
its color to match the color of its environment.
• By changing its color to accommodate its surroundings, the
chameleon fits quietly into its environment.
 3. Competing

• The style is assertive and non-cooperative.

• A person puts his/her interests before anyone else’s interests.
• One stands up for his rights and uses all the power to win his position.
• Low relationships orientation
• a lion can be a symbol of a competitive style.
• The lion’s roar helps the lion to satisfy its interests.

4. Compromising
• It is some assertive and some cooperative.
• somewhere between competition and accommodation.
• It means mutual give-and-take to satisfy both parties
• A zebra can be a symbol for the compromising style.
• A zebra’s unique look seems to indicate that it didn’t care if it was a
black horse or a white horse, so it “split the difference” and chose
black and white stripes.
 5. Collaborating

• It is assertive as well as cooperative,

• It is opposite of avoiding.

• It may also be called integrative style.

• This style focuses on satisfying the underlying concerns

of both the parties, meeting many current needs by
working together. Eg. Ethiopia National Consultation

• Through this style, employees develop ownership and

commitment.
• Sometimes this style gives birth to new mutual needs.
 Conflict Resolution

• Conflict resolution, or reconciliation, is conceptualized

as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the
peaceful ending of conflict and retribution.
• The term conflict resolution may also be used
interchangeably with dispute resolution,.
• Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and
view the conflict, with beliefs and perspectives and
understandings and attitudes.
• Emotional resolution is in the way disputants feel about a
conflict, the emotional energy.
• Behavioral resolution is how one thinks the disputants act,
their behavior.
 Local Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

• Negotiation
• it usually costs less than other methods,
• it allows disputants to work out their own resolutions,
• leading to more satisfying and enforceable
settlements.

• The disputants seek to move beyond their impasse

through discussion, persuasion, culminating in a
collaborative decision.
• may be combined with other techniques, including
mediation, conciliation, and arbitration.
 Mediation

• a mediator is supposed to be a neutral third party,

• The shared social ties between the mediator and disputants can
foster the negotiating process.
• Mediators by definition lack the authority to impose a
settlement.

• they can influence the negotiating process.

• A mediator may be selected ahead of time by the disputants,
but in other cases individuals emerge in that role in the course
of negotiations.

• Being a mediator offers diverse rewards: enhanced prestige;

confirmation of local leadership; the ability to build a
clientele; and sometimes payment for services rendered.
 Arbitration

• The process of arbitration involves submitting a dispute to a

mutually agreeable third party.
• In practice, the distinction between mediation and arbitration
can be quite fuzzy.
• Indigenous peoples and rural communities generally use a
bargaining model based on collaboration, consensus building,
and mutual agreement for both processes.
• The boundary is also often unclear between arbitration and
adjudication, the latter process being based on decision-
making by a judge or an administrative officer.
• The distinction between the two is especially problematic
given the incorporation of some local-level arbitration forums
into state legal systems.
 Adjudication
• Decision-making in adjudication is vested in judges and
administrators,
• It is sometimes depicted as the antithesis of negotiation.

• It is more likely to apply legal norms in a rigid manner,

to offer all-or-nothing decisions, to be expensive, and to
show little concern about the complexities of local
relationships.

• There are many issues about the accessibility and

appropriateness of adjudication for processing disputes
in small communities.
 Group Dynamics
• It is interaction of complex intra-and inter-personal
forces operating in a group
• It is the social process by which people interact and
behave in a group environment

• It refers to the attitudinal and behavioral

characteristics of a group.
• It is concerned with how groups are formed, their
structure and process and how they function.
• It is relevant in both formal and informal groups of
all types.
 Types of Groups

• There are two types of groups in every organization:

1. Formal Groups
• created by the organization itself
• regulated by the organizational rules and regulations.
• Life of the formal groups may be permanent or
temporary depending upon the specific objectives to be
fulfilled.
• Examples of permanent formal groups are board of
directors, managing committees etc. and
• temporary formal groups are exemplified by task force
or temporary committees created to fulfill certain
specified objectives.
 2. Informal Groups

• created voluntarily and spontaneously due to the socio-

psychological forces operating in the workplace.
• Individuals working together often develop liking for
each other and socialize with each other to overcome
the psychological fatigue, boredom and monotony
associated with their work.
• not regulated by organizational rules and regulations. 
• As informal groups are smaller in size as compared to
formal groups
• informal groups are not very stable due to the
personality differences between the members of the
informal group.
 Group Structure

• It is the internal framework that defines members'

relations to one another over time.

• It is a pattern of relationships among members that

hold the group together and help it achieve assigned
goals.

• Group structure can be described in a variety of ways:

group size, group roles, group norms, networks of
relations and group cohesiveness.
 Group size

• It can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people.

• Small groups of two to ten are thought to be more effective
because each member has ample opportunity to take part
and engage actively in the group.

• Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes

• as the size of the group increases, satisfaction increases up
to a certain point.

• Increasing the size of a group beyond 10-12 members’

results in decreased satisfaction.
• It is increasingly difficult for members of large groups to
identify with one another and experience cohesion.
 Roles
• Roles can be defined as a tendency to behave,
contribute and interrelate with others in a particular
way.

• Roles may be assigned formally, but more often are

defined through the process of role differentiation.

• A key role in a group is the leader, but there are other

important roles as well, including task roles,
relationship roles, and individual roles.
 Norms
• Norms are the informal rules that groups adopt to
regulate members' behavior.
• There are various types of norms, including:
• Prescriptive Norms: what group members are supposed
to do (e.g. saying thank you after someone does a favour
for you)
• Proscriptive Norms: actions that group members
should not do; prohibitive (e.g. not belching in public)
• Descriptive Norms: describe what people usually do
(e.g. clapping after a speech)
• Injunctive Norms: describe behaviors that people ought
to do; more evaluative in nature than a descriptive norm
 Inter member Relations

• are the connections among the members of a group, or the

social network within a group.
• Examining the inter member relations of a group can highlight
a group's density:
• how many members are linked to one another, or
• the degree centrality of members (number of ties between
members).
• Group cohesion:
• refers to the processes that keep members of a social group
connected.
• Terms such as attraction, solidarity, and morale are often used
to describe group cohesion.
• It has been linked to group performance.
 Group cohesiveness…cntd
• Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and
social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a
social group to one another and to the group as a whole.
• it can be broken down into four main components: social
relations, task relations, perceived unity, and emotions.
• According to Likert, “Cohesiveness is the attractiveness
of the members to the group or resistance of the members
to leaving it.”
• According to Seashore, ”Group cohesiveness is the
attraction of the members to the group in terms of the
strength of forces on the individual members to remain
active in the group and to resist leaving it.”
 Factors increasing Group Cohesiveness

• Intergroup competition
• Attraction to group
• Group success
• Agreement on goals
• Mutual influence

• Factors reducing cohesiveness

• Group size
• Disagreement on goals
• Intragroup competition
• Domination by the few
• Unpleasant experiences
 Stages of group development

1. Forming: The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with

forming a group.
2. Storming: this group is marked by the formation of dyads and
triads.
Pairing is a common phenomenon.
3. Norming: The dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other
members in the group.
• Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group
4. Performing: This is a stage of a fully functional group where
members see themselves as a group and get involved in the task.
5. Adjourning: The group decides to disband: In the case of
temporary groups, like project team, task force, etc.
 Motivational and Emotional Perspectives
• Motivations are psychological mechanisms that give
purpose and direction to behavior.

• These inner mechanisms can be called many things—

habits, beliefs, feelings, wants, instincts,
compulsions, drives

• Emotions often accompany these needs and desires;

feelings of happiness, sadness, satisfaction, and
sorrow are just a few of the emotions that can
influence how people act in group situations.
 Leadership
• It is a process by which an executive can direct,
guide and influence the behavior and work of others
towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given
situation.
• It is the ability of a manager to induce the
subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
• It is the potential to influence behaviour of others.
• It is also defined as the capacity to influence a group
towards the realization of a goal.
• It is the ability to persuade others
• Leaders are required to develop future visions, and to
motivate the organizational members to want to
achieve the visions.
 Characteristics of Leadership
• It is a inter-personal process: manager is influencing and
guiding workers towards attainment of goals.
• It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person:
intelligence, maturity and personality.
• It is a group process. It involves two or more people
interacting with each other.

• A leader is involved in shaping and moulding the behaviour

of the group towards accomplishment of organizational
goals.
• Leadership is situation bound: there is no best style of
leadership. It all depends upon tackling with the situations.
 Qualities of a Leader
• Physical appearance
• Vision and foresight
• Intelligence
• Communicative skills
•  Objective
• Knowledge of work
• Sense of responsibility
• Self-confidence and will-power
• Humanist
• Empathy
 Differences between Leadership and
Management
Basis Manager Leader
A person becomes a manager by A person becomes a leader on
Origin
virtue of his position. basis of his personal qualities.

Formal Manager has got formal rights in an Rights are not available to a
Rights organization because of his status. leader.

The group of employees whom

The subordinates are the followers
Followers the leaders leads are his
of managers.
followers.

Leader influences people to

A manager performs all five
Functions work willingly for group
functions of management.
objectives.

required to create relation

Necessity very essential to a concern. between person working in
organization.

Stability It is more stable. Leadership is temporary.

 Leadership and Management…d/ce..cntd
Basis Manager Leader
Mutual All leaders are not
All managers are leaders.
Relationship managers.
Manager is accountable for
Accountabilit self and subordinates Leaders have no well defined
y behaviour and accountability.
performance.
A leader’s concern is group
A manager’s concern is
Concern goals and member’s
organizational goals.
satisfaction.
People follow manager by People follow them on
Followers
virtue of job description. voluntary basis.
has command over
has command over different
Sanctions allocation and distribution
sanctions and related task
of sanctions.
 Leadership in Group and Decision Making Process

• Leadership Styles
• Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic
leaders,
• provide clear expectations for what needs to be done,
when it should be done, and how it should be done.
• There is also a clear division between the leader and
the followers.

• make decisions independently with little or no input

from the rest of the group.
• Researchers found that decision-making was less
creative under authoritarian leadership.
 Authoritarian…cntd
• They also found that it is more difficult to move from
an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice
versa.
• Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations
where there is little time for group decision-making

• Participative Leadership (Democratic leadership)

• is generally the most effective leadership style.
• offer guidance to group members, participate in the
group and allow input from other group members.
• Group members feel engaged in the process and are
more motivated and creative.
 Delegative (Laissez-Faire) Leadership
• It is characterized by lack of organization.
• Mostly it is dormant and occasionally it shows the
life (eg. Political parties become active when the
elections come)
• Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group
members and leave decision-making up to group
members.
• effective in situations where group members are
highly qualified in an area of expertise,
• it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of
motivation.
• Rarely may it grow to democratic group as well.
 Motivational Theories

• focuses on a person’s motivations, needs, emotions.

• Intrinsic motivation causes people to participate in an
activity for their own enjoyment
• Extrinsic motivation causes people to do something for
a reward or to avoid a penalty
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Abraham Maslow argued that humans possess unique
qualities that enable them to make independent choices
• Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs that states that
people’s behaviors are guided or motivated by a
sequence of needs.
 Motivational Theories…cntd:
Figure: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Motivational and Hygiene Factors

1. Motivational factors :
• achievement, recognition, the work itself,
responsibility, advancement, and growth, which
produce job satisfaction

2. Hygiene factors:
• cause dissatisfaction if not present,
• but do not motivate workers to do more;
• examples include:
 larger salaries,
 more supervision, and
 more attractive work environment
 McGregor’s Theory X and Y

• Theory X: assumes workers dislike and avoid work,

• so managers must use coercion, threats, and various
control schemes to get workers to meet objectives
• Theory Y: assumes individuals consider work as
natural as play or rest and enjoy the satisfaction of
esteem and self-actualization needs
• Theory Z: is based on the Japanese approach to
motivating workers, emphasizing trust, quality,
collective decision making, and cultural values
 Interpersonal Communication
• It refers to an interactional process between
two people (a dyad), either face-to-face or
through mediated forms.
•
• occurs when we interact simultaneously with
another person and mutually influence each
other

• It is a special form of human communication

• It is the fundamental means we use to manage
our relationships