DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Introduction

The digestive system is used for breaking down food

into nutrients which then pass into the circulatory
system and are taken to where they are needed in the
body.
 Functions of the Digestive System

 Ingest food
Break down food into nutrient molecules
Absorb molecules into the bloodstream
Rid the body of indigestible remains
 There are four stages to food processing:

1. Ingestion: taking in food

2. Digestion: breaking down food into nutrients
3. Absorption: taking in nutrients by cells
4. Egestion: removing any leftover wastes
 ORAL CAVITY

 It is the first enlarged part of the tract.

 It opens externally through upper and lower lips.

 The cavity has dome shaped roof called palate.The hard palate is in front and
soft palate is behind.

 This forms an arch with uvula hanging in centre.

 Pharyngeal tonsils which form the lymph glands are on either side and protect
against infection from adjacent area.
 Function
 In the oral cavity food is teared and grinded with the help of teeth and
also mixed with saliva.
 The process tearing, grinding with saliva involves movement of
jaws,cheek,lips and tongue.
 This process is known as Mastication.
 Tongue

 The tongue is at the base of the mouth with it’s one-third lying in Front
and one-third in the posterior part of the oral cavity.
 It is musculo membranous structure with taste buds and papillae on
it’s surface.
 The tongue is mobile organ with tip, body and base.
 TONGUE

 Tongue consist of:

 Stratified and Cornified epithelium.
 Cross-striated muscle.
 Glands
 TONGUE

 Epithelium of the tongue is modified into papillae and tastebuds.

 Papillae may be filiform, fungiform and circumvallate.
 Filiform papillae are narrow and conical distribute on all surface of
tongue.
 A few taste buds are present in fungiform papillae.
 Muscle Fibers

 Muscle Fibers in the tongue interlace each other

 Fibers are seen cut in all directions.
 Fibro-elastic tissue lies in between muscles.
 Glands of the tongue may be mucous, serous or lymph glands.
 Teeth

 There are 16+16 =32 teeth in the mouth and are fixed in their sockets in the upper
jaw and lower jaw.

 Teeth are arranged in curved form.

 The front ones are for crushing and grinding.

 The order of teeth is from front to back is

 Incisors,canine,pre-molars and molars.

 Teeth

 A tooth has three parts:

 Crown at the top.
 Neck in the middle.
 Root at the bottom.
 Tooth

 A tooth is composed of three substances.

 Dentine.

 Enamel.

 Cementum.

 Dentine forms the major part of the tooth and has bone like structure.

 Enamel is the outer most layer that covers the tooth.

 It is harder than bone.

 Cementum is the neck and it is as hard as bone.

 Salivary Glands

 There are three pairs of major salivary glands:

 Parotid.

 Submaxillary.

 Sublingual.

 Their duct open inside the mouth.

 Parotid Gland
 Parotid glands:
 Location: These are situated in front and part of it is below
each ear.
 It is serous type of gland which secretes ptyalin.
 The duct open into cheek of mouth on either side.
 Submandibular Gland

 They are situated at the bottom of mouth on either side.

 They are sero mucous(mixed glands).
 Their ducts open on tongue
 Sublingual Glands

 Location: These are situated below the tongue.

 Their main opens by the side of frenulum-linguae which is thin
partition that binds the tongue to the base.
 Salivary glands are tubulo-alveolar exocrine glands.
 Each glands consist of lobules made up of alveoli and supportive
connective tissue forming interlobular septum.
 Sublingual Glands

 Alveoli contain secretory cells that may be of 2 types

 Serous

 Mucous.

 Former type secretes watery clear fluid and later secretes mucous type
of fluid.
 Saliva

 It is the mixed secretions of all glands in oral cavity.

 Saliva contains inorganic salts, sodiumchloride,enzyme ptyalin,
lipase and mucin.
 The PH of saliva is usually neutral or slightly acidic.
 Function of Saliva
 Saliva keeps the mouth moist.
 Saliva helps in mastication of food and form the bolus.
 Saliva dilutes, hot and pungent substance and prevents injury to the
mouth.
 Act as solvent.
 Saliva removes food particles and prevents growth of microbes.
 Function of Saliva

 Ptyalin present in saliva splits starch into maltose and then into
glucose.
 Saliva helps in excretion of heavy metals,urea,and certain other drugs.
 Saliva act as buffer by maintaining the level of bicarbonate and
phosphate in blood.
 Pharynx

 It is tubal space situated between the mouth and oesophagus.

 It is divided into three parts:
 Nasopharynx

 Oropharynx

 Laryngopharynx.
 Pharynx

 It is the junction between oral and nasal cavity.

 Tonsil is lymph node at the back of the nasopharynx
 Oesophagus
 Structure:
 Itis long hollow tube 25 cm in length and opens into the stomach at
cardiac orifice.
 Food passes from the pharynx through the Oesophagus to be finally
pushed into the stomach.
 The tube distends during the passage of the food which is pushed
downwards by contraction of muscles.
 Oesophagus
 Histologically it shows 3 layers:
 Muscular layer
 Sub-Mucosa.

 Mucosa
 Oesophagus
• Muscular layer
• 1.Stratied Muscle , 2.Smooth Muscle

Upper portion of one –third of Oesophagus consist of striated

muscles.

• Smooth muscles are present in lower one third of Oesophagus.

 The esophagus is subdivided into three anatomical
segments:
cervical,
thoracic, and
Abdominal.
The cervical segment begins at the cricopharyngeus and
terminates at the suprasternal notch. This segment lies just
behind the trachea, to which it is joined via loose
connective tissues.
 Oesophagus
 Submucosa consist of loose connective tissue which houses nerve plexus
and blood vessels.
 Mucosa consist of long lamina propria and mucous membrane.
 Lamia propria is made up of loose aerolar connective tissue with
lymphatics..
 Function:
 The bolus formed in the oral cavity passed into the stomach,through
pharynx ,oesophagus through deglutition.
 Stomach
 It is J shaped hollow organ lying in the abdomen under the diaphragm.
 It’s major part is to the left of the midline.
 It distend till it is filled.
 Capacity:1-2 liters.
 Function: It stores foods and partially digests it biochemically.
 Stomach

 Stomach has two surfaces:

 Anterior

 Posterior

 It has two curves:

 Lesser and Greater curvature.
 Stomach

 Upper part of the stomach, above the level of cardiac sphincter is

called fundus.
 The part below the level of cardiac notch is called body.
 Portion below the incisura –angularis forms pylorus.
 Pylorus is divided into 1)Pyloric antrum 2) Pyloric canal.
 Histology of stomach

 Stomach consist of Mucosa

 Serosa

 Muscularis Externa.
 Submucosa

 Muscularis interna.
 Histology of stomach
 Serosa is made up of areolar connective tissue.
 Muscularis externa consist of three layer of muscle fibres.
 Longitudinal

 Circular

 Oblique from outside inwards.

 Histology of stomach
 Muscula externa is responsible for muscular contraction which churn
the food.
 Submucosa: It is made up of aerolar connective tissue,blood vessels and
nerve fibres
 Muscularis interna consist of 2.-3 layer of muscle running
longitudinally and circularly.
 Histology of stomach
 The inner most part of the stomach is mucosa.
 Mucosa is relatively thicker and consist no of folds called rugae.
 There are tubular glands in the stomach.
 Histology of stomach

 Peptic glands.
 Oxyntic glands.
 Mucus glands.
 Histology of stomach
 Body of the stomach consist of peptic glands.
 Oxyntic glands are concentrated in fundus of stomach.
 Mucous glands secrete alkaline mucus present in pylorus portion of
stomach.
 Histology of stomach
 The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelial cells
called surface mucousa cells.
 The mucosa contains a lamina propria (areolarconnective tissue) and a
muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle)
 Epithelial cells extend down into the lamina propria, where they form
columns of secretory cells called gastric glands.
 Histology of stomach
 Several gastric glands open into the bottom of narrow channels called
gastric pits.
 Gastric glands contain three types of exocrine gland cells that secrete
their products into the stomach lumen: mucous neck cells, chief cells, and
parietal cells.
 Histology of stomach
Serosa Muscularis externa Submucosa Muscularis interna Mucosa

Areolar Longitudnal Aerolar tissue 2-3 layer of muscle

Thicker
connective Circular Blood vessels Running
folds called
Tissue Oblique Nerve Fibres longitudinally and
Rugae
circularly
 Histology of stomach

 The stomach has rich blood supply through gastric vessels.

 It is supplied with sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
 They regulate secretory activity in stomach
 Gastric juice and mechanism
of excretion
 Gastric juice:
 The glands in the mucous coat of stomach secrete gastric juice.
 It is clear and colourless fluid containing 0.4% HCL.
 Gastric juice contains pepsin,gastric renin,gastric lipase
 Ph of juice is 0.9-1.5

 Highly acidic.
 Mechanism of secretion
 Body and fundus of stomach secrete acidic juice,
 Pyloric part releases alkaline juice.
 Fasting stomach secretes 10-60 ml of gastric juices per hour.
 500 ml of juices is secreted after meals.
 Mechanism of secretion
 Gastric secretion occurs in 3 phases.
 Nervous

 Gastric

 Intestinal phase
 Mechanism of secretion

 Nervous phase:

 Secretion occurs due to stimulation of the vagus nerve

 Gastric phase:

 Release of chemical substance of gastrin, histamine and release of gastric juice takes
place after entry of food into stomach due to stimulation and activation of gastrin
hormone.

 Gastric phase is strongest.

 Mechanism of secretion

 Intestinal Phase:
 When food enters duodenum further secretion of gastric juice is stopped.
 It is also inhibited by release of enterogastrin hormone secreted from
duodenum.
 Secretin,CCK and GIP inhibit gastric acid secretion.
 Function of gastric juice
 The enzyme pepsin with HCL digests protein into peptone and
proteoses.
 Renin acts on milk protein caseinogen and converts into casein.
 HCL carries out hydrolysis of food stuff and act as antiseptic.
 Gastric juice excretes heavy metals and certain drugs.
 It also consist extrinsic food factor(absorbs Vit b12)
 Function of stomach
 Mechanical function
 Secretion

 Antiseptic(HCL)

 Digestion

 Absorption

 Excretion
 Mechanical and chemical digestion in
stomach
 Several minutes after food enters the stomach, waves of peristalsis pass
over the stomach every 15 to 25 seconds.
 Few peristaltic waves are observed in the fundus, which primarily has a
storage function.
 Instead, most waves begin at the body of the stomach and intensify as they
reach the antrum.
 Mechanical and chemical digestion in
stomach
 Each peristaltic wave moves gastric contents from the body of the stomach
down into the antrum, a process known as propulsion.
 The pyloric sphincter normally remains almost, but not completely, closed.
 Because most food particles in the stomach initially are too large to fit
through the narrow pyloric sphincter, they are forced back into the body of
the stomach, a process referred to as retropulsion.
 Mechanical and chemical digestion in
stomach
 The net result of these movements is that gastric contents are mixed
with gastric juice, eventually becoming reduced to a soupy liquid called
chyme.
 Once the food particles in chyme are small enough, they can pass
through the pyloric sphincter, a phenomenon known as gastric
emptying.
 Gastricemptying is a slow process: only about 3 mL of chyme moves
through the pyloric sphincter at a time.
 Mechanical and chemical digestion
in stomach

 HCl secretion by parietal cells can be stimulated by several sources:

acetylcholine (ACh) released by parasympathetic neurons, gastrin
secreted by G cells, and histamine
 Acetylcholine and gastrin stimulate parietal cells to secrete more HCl in
the presence of histamine.
 Mechanical and chemical digestion in
stomach

 Histamine acts synergistically, enhancing the effects of acetylcholine and

gastrin.
 Receptors for all three substances are present in the plasma membrane of
parietal cells. The histamine receptors on parietal cells are called H2
receptors.
 Small Intestine

 It is coiled up tubular structure which consist of 3 parts:

 Duodenum

 Jejunum

 Iluem

 About 5-7 metres long.

 Small Intestine
 Duodenum:

 The first part of the small intestine is C- shaped tube.

 The descending part of duodenum contains opening of bile duct and pancreatic
duct.

 Former contains bile and later contains pancreatic juice.

 They open common bile duct.


 Jejunum
 It is the continuation of duodenum and forms two-fifth of small intestine.
 It is coiled up structure and perform peristaltic movements .
 It has innumerable glands which form the succus entricus juice.
 It is bound by fold of peritoneum called mesentery which carries blood
vessels.
 Main Function is digestion of food and function of absorption.
 Ileum
 It is distal part and coiled up part of intestine.
 It follows jejunum and ends at caecum which is beginning of large
intestine.
 Ileum has same structure as jejunum but has additional villi.
 Histology of small intestine
 The wall of the small intestine is composed of the same four layers that
make up most of the GI tract: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and
serosa.
 The mucosa is composed of a layer of epithelium, lamina propria, and
muscularis mucosae
 Histology of small intestine
 The epithelial layer of the small intestinal mucosa consists of simple
columnar epithelium that contains many types of cells
 Absorptive cells of the epithelium contain enzymes that digest food and
possess microvilli that absorb nutrients in small intestinal chyme.
 Also present in the epithelium are goblet cells, which secrete mucus.
 Histology of small intestine
 The lamina propria of the small intestinal mucosa contains areolar
connective tissue and has an abundance of mucosa-associated lymphoid
tissue (MALT).
 Solitary lymphatic nodules are most numerous in the distal part of the
ileum
 Groups of lymphatic nodules referred to as aggregated lymphatic
follicles, or Peyer’s patches (PI--erz), are also present in the ileum.
 The Muscularis mucosae of the small intestinal mucosa consists of
smooth muscle.
 Histology of small intestine

 The submucosa of the duodenum contains duodenal glands, also called

Brunner’s glands (BRUN-erz) which secrete an alkaline mucus that
helps neutralize gastric acid in the chyme.
 The Muscularis of the small intestine consists of two layers of smooth
muscle. The outer, thinner layer contains longitudinal fibers; the inner,
thicker layer contains circular fibers.
 Histology of small intestine
 These structural features include circular folds, villi, and microvilli.
 Circular folds or plicae circulares are folds of the mucosa and
submucosa.
 Circular folds enhance absorption by increasing surface area and causing
the chyme to spiral, rather than move in a straight line, as it passes
through the small intestine.
 Histology of small intestine
 Also present in the small intestine are villi (= tuft s of hair), which are
fingerlike projections of the mucosa that are 0.5–1 mm long.
 Each villus (singular form) is covered by epithelium and has a core of
lamina propria; embedded in the connective tissue of the lamina propria
are an arteriole, a venule, a blood capillary network, and a lacteal (LAK-
tē-al = milky), which is a lymphatic capillary
 Histology of small intestine
 Nutrients absorbed by the epithelial cells covering the villus pass
through the wall of a capillary or a lacteal to enter blood or lymph,
respectively.
 Besides circular folds and villi, the small intestine also has microvilli
(mī-krō-VIL-ī; micro- = small), which are projections of the apical
(free) membrane of the absorptive cells.
 Each microvillus is a 1-𝜇m-long cylindrical, membrane-covered
projection that contains a bundle of 20–30 actin filaments.
 Histology of small intestine
 Brush border:
 Among the brush-border enzymes are four carbohydrate-digesting enzymes called α-
dextrinase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase; protein digesting enzymes called peptidases
(aminopeptidase and dipeptidase); and two types of nucleotide-digesting enzymes,
nucleosidases and phosphatases.
 Also, as absorptive cells slough off into the lumen of the small intestine, they break
apart and release enzymes that help digest nutrients in the chyme.
 Mechanical Digestion in the
Small Intestine
 The two types of movements of the small intestine—segmentations and a type of
peristalsis called migrating motility complexes—are governed mainly by the myenteric
plexus.
 Segmentations are localized, mixing contractions that occur in portions of intestine
distended by a large volume of chyme.
 Segmentations mix chyme with the digestive juices and bring the particles of food into
contact with the mucosa for absorption;
 Mechanical Digestion in the
Small Intestine
 After most of a meal has been absorbed, which lessens distension of the
wall of the small intestine, segmentation stops and peristalsis begins.
 The type of peristalsis that occurs in the small intestine, termed a
migrating motility complex (MMC), begins in the lower portion of the
stomach and pushes chyme forward along a short stretch of small intestine
before dying out.
 The MMC slowly migrates down the small intestine, reaching the end of
the ileum in 90–120 minutes.
 Chemical digestion in small
intestine
 Digestion of carbohydrate:
 Even though the action of salivary amylase may continue in the
stomach for a while, the acidic pH of the stomach destroys salivary
amylase and ends its activity.
 Those starches not already broken down into maltose, maltotriose, and
α-dextrins are cleaved by pancreatic amylase, an enzyme in pancreatic
 Chemical digestion in small
intestine
 Sucrase breaks sucrose into a molecule of glucose and a molecule of
fructose.
 Lactase digests lactose into a molecule of glucose and a molecule of
galactose.
 Maltase splits maltose and maltotriose into two or three molecules of
glucose, respectively.
 Chemical digestion in small
intestine
 Digestion of Lipids:
 There are three types of lipases that can participate in lipid digestion: lingual
lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase.
 Although some lipid digestion occurs in the stomach through the action of lingual
and gastric lipases.
 Triglycerides are broken down by pancreatic lipase into fatty acids and
monoglycerides.
 Chemical digestion in small
intestine
 Before a large lipid globule containing triglycerides can be digested in
the small intestine, it must first undergo emulsification—a process in
which the large lipid globule is broken down into several small lipid
globules.
 The small lipid globules formed from emulsification provide a large
surface area that allows pancreatic lipase to function more effectively.
 Chemical digestion in small
intestine
 Digestion of Protein: protein digestion starts in the stomach, where
proteins are fragmented into peptides by the action of pepsin.
 Enzymes in pancreatic juice—trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase,
and elastase—continue to break down proteins into peptides.
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase all cleave the peptide bond between a
specific amino acid and its neighbours.
 Chemical digestion in small
intestine
 Protein digestion is completed by two peptidases in the brush border
aminopeptidase and dipeptidase.
 Aminopeptidase cleaves off the amino acid at the amino end of a
peptide.
 Dipeptidase splits dipeptides (two amino acids joined by a peptide bond)
into single amino acids.
 Liver
 The liver is the heaviest gland of the body, weighing about 1.4 kg (about 3
lb) in an average adult.
 The liver is inferior to the diaphragm and occupies most of the right
hypochondriac and part of the epigastric regions of the abdominopelvic
cavity.
 The gallbladder (gall- = bile) is a pear-shaped sac that is located in a
depression of the posterior surface of the liver.
 It
is 7–10 cm (3– 4 in.) long and typically hangs from the anterior inferior
margin of the liver.
 Liver
 The liver is divided into two principal lobes—a large right lobe and a
smaller left lobe—by the falciform ligament, a fold of the mesentery.
 The right lobe is considered by many anatomists to include an inferior
quadrate lobe (kwa-DRA - T) and a posterior caudate lobe.
 The right and left coronary ligaments are narrow extensions of the
parietal peritoneum that suspend the liver from the diaphragm.
 Gall bladder

 The parts of the gallbladder include the broad fundus, which projects
inferiorly beyond the inferior border of the liver;
 The body, the central portion; and the neck, the tapered portion.
 The body and neck project superiorly.
 Histology of gall bladder
 The mucosa of the gallbladder consists of simple columnar epithelium
arranged in rugae resembling those of the stomach.
 The wall of the gallbladder lacks a submucosa.
 The middle, muscular coat of the wall consists of smooth muscle fibers.
 Contraction of the smooth muscle fibers ejects the contents of the
gallbladder into the cystic duct.
 Function of Gall Bladder

 The functions of the gallbladder are to store and concentrate the bile
produced by the liver (up to tenfold) until it is needed in the duodenum.
 In the concentration process, water and ions are absorbed by the
gallbladder mucosa.
 Bile aids in the digestion and absorption of fats.
 Histology of liver and Gall
bladder
 Hepatocytes. Hepatocytes (hepat- = liver; -cytes = cells) are the major
functional cells of the liver and perform a wide array of metabolic, secretory,
and endocrine functions.
 These are specialized epithelial cells with 5 to 12 sides that make up about
80% of the volume of the liver.
 Hepatocytes form complex three-dimensional arrangements called hepatic
laminae (laminae are plates of hepatocytes one cell thick bordered on either
side by the endothelial-lined vascular spaces called hepatic sinusoids.
 Histology of liver and Gall
bladder
 Bile canaliculi (kan-a-LIK-ū-li = small canals) are small ducts between
hepatocytes that collect bile produced by the hepatocytes.
 From bile canaliculi, bile passes into bile ductules and then bile ducts.
 The bile ducts merge and eventually form the larger right and left
hepatic ducts, which unite and exit the liver as the common hepatic
duct
 Histology of liver and Gall
bladder
 Hepatic sinusoids are highly permeable blood capillaries between rows
of hepatocytes that receive oxygenated blood from branches of the
hepatic artery and nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from branches of
the hepatic portal vein.
 Function of liver
 Each day, hepatocytes secrete 800–1000 mL (about 1 qt) of bile,
 The principal bile pigment is bilirubin
 The phagocytosis of aged red blood cells liberates iron, globin, and
bilirubin (derived from heme)
 Function of liver
 Carbohydrate metabolism.  Storage.

 Lipid metabolism.  Phagocytosis

 Protein metabolism  Activation of vitamin D.

 Processing of drugs and hormones.

 Excretion of bilirubin.

 Synthesis of bile salts.

 Anatomy of pancreas
 The pancreas (pan- = all; -creas = flesh), a retroperitoneal gland that is
about 12–15 cm (5–6 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) thick, lies posterior to
the greater curvature of the stomach.
 The pancreas consists of a head, a body, and a tail and is usually
connected to the duodenum of the small intestine by two ducts.
 Anatomy of pancreas
 The head is the expanded portion of the organ near the curve of the
duodenum; superior to and to the left of the head are the central body
and the tapering tail.
 Pancreatic juices are secreted by exocrine cells into small ducts that
ultimately unite to form two larger ducts, the pancreatic duct and the
accessory duct.
 Anatomy of pancreas
 These in turn convey the secretions into the small intestine.
 The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct from the liver and
gallbladder and enters the duodenum as a dilated common duct called the
hepato pancreatic ampulla.The other major duct of the pancreas, the
accessory duct (duct of Santorini), leads from the pancreas and empties
into the duodenum about 2.5 cm (1 in.) superior to the hepato pancreatic
 Histology of Pancreas
 The pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular epithelial cells.
 About 99% of the clusters, called acini (AS-i-nī), constitute the exocrine
portion of the organ
 The cells within acini secrete a mixture of fluid and digestive enzymes
called pancreatic juice.
 The remaining 1% of the clusters, called pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) (I--lets), form the endocrine portion of the pancreas.
 These cells secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and
pancreatic polypeptide.
 Composition and Function of
pancreatic juice
 The enzymes in pancreatic juice include a starch-digesting enzyme called
pancreatic amylase;
 several enzymes that digest proteins into peptides called trypsin (TRIP-
sin), chymotrypsin (kī′-mō-TRIP-sin), carboxypeptidase and elastase (ē-
LAS-tās);
 Composition and Function of
pancreatic juice
 The principal triglyceride–digesting enzyme in adults, called pancreatic
lipase; and nucleic acid–digesting enzymes called ribonuclease and
deoxyribonuclease that digest ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into nucleotides.
 Anatomy of Large Intestine
 The large intestine (Figure 24.24), which is about 1.5 m (5 ft. ) long and 6.5 cm (2.5
in.) in diameter in living humans and cadavers, extends from the ileum to the anus.

 It is attached to the posterior abdominal wall by its mesocolon, which is a double

layer of peritoneum.

 Structurally, the four major regions of the large intestine are the cecum, colon,
rectum, and anal canal.
 Anatomy of Large Intestine

 The opening from the ileum into the large intestine is guarded by a fold of
mucous membrane called the ileocecal sphincter (valve), which allows
materials from the small intestine to pass into the large intestine.
 Hanging inferior to the ileocecal valve is the cecum, a small pouch about 6
cm (2.4 in.) long.
 Attached to the cecum is a twisted, coiled tube ,measuring about 8 cm (3
in.) in length, called the appendix.
 Anatomy of Large Intestine
 The open end of the cecum merges with a long tube called the colon (= food passage),
which is divided into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid portions.

 True to its name, the ascending colon ascends on the right side of the abdomen.

 The colon continues across the abdomen to the left side as the transverse colon

 The sigmoid colon (sigm- = S-shaped) begins near the left iliac crest, projects
medially to the midline, and terminates as the rectum at about the level of the third
sacral vertebra.
 Anatomy of Large Intestine
 The rectum is about 15 cm (6 in.) in length and lies anterior to the
sacrum and coccyx.
 The terminal 2–3 cm (1 in.) of the large intestine is called the anal
canal.
 The mucous membrane of the anal canal is arranged in longitudinal folds
called anal columns that contain a network of arteries and veins.
 Anatomy of Large Intestine
 The opening of the anal canal to the exterior, called the anus, is guarded by
an internal anal sphincter of smooth muscle (involuntary) and an
external anal sphincter.
 Histology of the Large Intestine
 The wall of the large intestine contains the typical four layers found in the rest of the
GI tract: mucosa, submucosa, Muscularis, and serosa.

 The mucosa consists of simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria (areolar

connective tissue), and Muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle)

 The epithelium contains mostly absorptive and goblet cells.

 They are located in long, straight, tubular intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) that
extend the full thickness of the mucosa.
 Histology of the Large
Intestine
 Solitary lymphatic nodules are also found in the lamina propria of the
mucosa and may extend through the muscularis mucosae into the
submucosa.
 Mechanical Digestion in the
Large Intestine
 The passage of chyme from the ileum into the cecum is regulated by the
action of the ileocecal sphincter.
 Immediately after a meal, a gastroileal reflex (gas′-trō-IL-ē-al)
intensifies peristalsis in the ileum and forces any chyme into the cecum.
 Whenever the cecum is distended, the degree of contraction of the
ileocecal sphincter intensifies.
 Mechanical Digestion in the
Large Intestine
 One movement characteristic of the large intestine is haustral churning.
 In this process, the haustra remain relaxed and become distended while they fill up.
 When the distension reaches a certain point, the walls contract and squeeze the contents
into the next haustrum.
 A final type of movement is mass peristalsis, a strong peristaltic wave that begins at about
the middle of the transverse colon and quickly drives the contents of the colon into the
rectum.
 Mechanical Digestion in the
Large Intestine
 Because food in the stomach initiates this gastrocolic reflex in the colon,
mass peristalsis usually takes place three or four times a day.
 Chemical Digestion in large
Intestine
 The final stage of digestion occurs in the colon through the activity of
bacteria that inhabit the lumen
 Mucus is secreted by the glands of the large intestine, but no enzymes
are secreted.
 Chyme is prepared for elimination by the action of bacteria, which
ferment any remaining carbohydrates and release hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, and methane gases.
 These gases contribute to flatus (gas) in the colon, termed flatulence
when it is excessive.
 Chemical Digestion in large
Intestine
 Bacteria also convert any remaining proteins to amino acids and break
down the amino acids into simpler substances indole, skatole, hydrogen
sulfide, and fatty acids.
 Some of the indole and skatole is eliminated in the feces and contributes to
their odor. Bacterial products that are absorbed in the colon include several
vitamins needed for normal metabolism, among them some B vitamins
and vitamin K.
 Chemical Digestion in large
Intestine
 Some of the indole and skatole is eliminated in the feces and contributes
to their odor.
 Bacterial products that are absorbed in the colon include several
vitamins needed for normal metabolism, among them some B vitamins
and vitamin K.
 Absorption and Feces Formation
in the Large Intestine
 By the time chyme has remained in the large intestine 3–10 hours, it has become
solid or semisolid because of water absorption and is now called feces.
 Chemically, feces consist of water, inorganic salts, sloughed-off epithelial cells
from the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract, bacteria, products of bacterial
decomposition, unabsorbed digested materials, and indigestible parts of food.
 Absorption and Feces Formation
in the Large Intestine
 Although 90% of all water absorption occurs in the small intestine, the
large intestine absorbs enough to make it an important organ in
maintaining the body’s water balance.
 The large intestine also absorbs ions, including sodium and chloride, and
some vitamins.
 Absorption and Feces Formation
in the Large Intestine

 Mass peristaltic movements push fecal material from the sigmoid colon into
the rectum. The resulting distension of the rectal wall stimulates stretch
receptors, which initiates a defecation reflex that results in defecation. the
elimination of feces from the rectum through the anus.
 Absorption and Feces Formation
in the Large Intestine
 The defecation reflex occurs as follows: In response to distension of the
rectal wall, the receptors send sensory nerve impulses to the sacral spinal
cord.
 Motor impulses from the cord travel along parasympathetic nerves back
to the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus.
 The resulting contraction of the longitudinal rectal muscles shortens the
rectum, thereby increasing the pressure within it.
 Absorption and Feces Formation
in the Large Intestine
 The external anal sphincter is voluntarily controlled
 Ifit is voluntarily relaxed, defecation occurs and the feces are expelled
through anus.
 Disorders of Digestive System
 Constipation  Cholecystitis
 Diahorrea  Gastroenteritis.
 Nausea  Dysphagia
 Vomiting  Peptic ulcer
 Anorexia  Appendicitis
 Gastritis  Peritonitis
 Heartburn
 Disorders of Digestive System

 Peritonitis
 Haemorrhoids (Piles)
 Fatty liver
 Hepatitis
 Cirhossis of liver