ENCODERS, DECODERS

MUX, DEMUX & DATA BUSES

• Encoding circuits may take many forms e.g. convert an
analogue signal to BCD or 4bit binary code; take in a binary
signal and convert it into another code to suit the system e.g.
OCTAL to BCD.
• It is an indispensable part of any digital communication system
where the analogue signal to be transmitted is digitized at the
sending end with the help of an A/D converter.
• It is invariably used in all digital read-out test and measuring
equipment. Be it a digital voltmeter or a laser power meter, or
even a ph. meter, an A/D converter is the heart of all of them.
• An A/D converter takes at its input an analogue voltage and after
a certain amount of time produces a digital output code
representing the analogue input.
• There are various techniques developed for the purpose of A/D
conversion, and these techniques have different advantages and
disadvantages with respect to one another.
• The drawing below shows a keyboard layout (decimal input) to
give a BCD output. By pressing any one key or switch (suitably
decimal numbered) the appropriate BCD code is given at the
output.
• Assume 4 is pressed then diode 5 will conduct through RC making the
output (C) go high, all the other inputs stay low, so the output is 0100
(decimal 4).
• This principle will be employed in inertial navigation systems (INS),
inertial reference systems (IRS), and flight management systems (FMS)
as all these have keyboards. So some form of encoding will convert the
input signals into the correct code for the system.
• In flight data recoding some of the input into the system are in analogue
form e.g. dc, ac or synchro signals. This means that they have to
encoded into digital for use by the central processing unit (CPU). This
is done by analogue to digital converter.
A DIGITAL RAMP CONVERTER
• A comparator is a device with two inputs which compare the
voltages at each input to determine which is greater, the output
is logic 1 if A is larger than B and logic 0 if B is larger than A.
• On start B is 0, and A is the larger output from the comparator,
and is logic state 1 and when the start pulse goes low, the AND
gate opens and the clock pulses go to the counter. Each pulse
causes the counter to advance.
• As the counter counts up, its value is converted into its analogue
equivalent by the digital to analogue convertor and applied to
the comparator at B.
• The DAC output therefore increases in steps until it reaches just
above the analogue input level i.e. B input > A. the comparator
output goes low, AND gate closes, the count stops, the digital
read out is the taken from the counter.
• This type of analogue to digital converter is slow in operation
and is unsuitable for high speed operation, and of course the
larger the voltage the longer (more steps) time it takes. This
problem can be partly overcome by using an up/down counter.
It counts up when the comparator is logic 1 and down when the
comparators output is logic 0.
• as the analogue input varies it simply counts up or down from
the previous count rather than resetting to zero as did the digital
ramp converter. This type is called the continuous digital ramp
converter and is a considerable improvement on the previous
one.
• However, the fastest type of ADC of the ones considered is the
successive approximation type. This is similar to the previous
circuit but the register is used instead of a counter and a control
logic block is included between the comparator and the register,
which controls the output of the register.
• Initially a reset signal puts all bits in the register to 0. the control
logic sets the MSB in the register to 1 and the rest to logic 0.
• The output of the DAC is then compared to the analogue input if B
> A, then this number is too large and the MSB remains at 1.
• At the next clock pulse the control changes the next bit in the
register B > A it is set to 0, if B < A it is set to 1 and so on until all
the bit values are found.
• The digital read out can then be read. This has a fast conversion
time which does not depend on the analogue voltage levels but just
the number of bits in the converter.
DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTERS/DECODERS
• The purpose of a decoder is to change a binary
number into analogue form, usually a voltage. the
later may be used to perform various functions e.g.
changing the position of an aerofoil, providing a print
out, operating a video display etc.
• A type of digital to analogue converter which can
handle a large number of bits is shown below and it is
called an R-2R DAC.
• By using the resistors in the ladder network, only two
values of resistors are required for the input network, no
matter how many bits are in the word.
• The symbol A represents an operational amplifier which is
a special type of voltage amplifier used in many analogue
computers as a summing amplifier i.e. is able to sum
together different input signals.
• The output of this amplifier circuit is given by the
following expression; VOUT = - (8B3 + 4B2 + 2B1 + B0).
 MULTIPLEXER
• A multiplexer or MUX, also called a data selector, is a
combinational circuit with more than one input line, one output
line and more than one selection line.
• There are some multiplexer ICs that provide complementary
outputs. Also, multiplexers in IC form almost invariably have
an enable or strobe input, which needs to be active for the
multiplexer to be able to perform its intended function.
• A multiplexer selects binary information present on
any one of the input lines, depending upon the logic
status of the selection inputs, and routes it to the
output line.
• If there are n selection lines, then the number of
maximum possible input lines is and the multiplexer
is referred to as a –to -1 multiplexer or ×1
multiplexer.
• An example is in passenger entertainment system
where a passenger can select one audio/visual channel
from amongst many channels supplied to the seat.
• A multiplexer unit can be linked to a mechanical
rotary switch (see fig c below) with separate units of
data waiting in temporary store to be transmitted
down the data output line. In reality it is electronic
with no moving parts and it is very fast.
 DEMULTIPLEXERS
• A demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit with an input
line, output lines and n select lines. It routes the information
present on the input line to any of the output lines.
• The output line that gets the information present on the input
line is decided by the bit status of the selection lines. Figure
below shows the circuit representation of a 1-to-4 demultiplexer
and the truth table when the input line is held HIGH.
 DATA BUSES
• A data bus is a pair of twisted wires with shielding.
• From the computers within the aircraft, systems information has to
be transmitted to the components, this may be in the form of
electrical, fibre optic signals.
• Aeronautical radio incorporated (ARINC) is a corporation made up
of scheduled airlines, transport companies, aircraft manufacturers
and flag airlines.
• One primary activity of ARINC is to produce specifications and
reports for the purpose of;
• (1) indicating to manufacturers the group opinion concerning
requisites of new equipment.
• (2) to channel new equipment designs in a direction which will
result in maximum standardization.
• There are many ARINC specifications in existence;
• ARINC 573 specification for digital flight data recording systems.
• ARINC 561 specification for the inertial navigation systems.
• ARINC 429 specification for transfer of digital data between
avionic components.
• ARINC 629 an improvement on ARINC 429 system.
• Bus systems can be either bidirectional (two way) or
unidirectional (one way), they can also be serial (one bit of data
transmitted at a time) or parallel (where often 8, 16 or 32 bits of
data appear as a group on a number of data lines at the same
time).
• Because of the constraints imposed by conductor length and
weight, all practical aircraft bus systems are based on serial
(rather than parallel) data transfer.
• Individual line replaceable units ( LRU ), such as the engine
data interface or flap/slat electronics units, are each connected
to the bus by means of a dedicated bus coupler and serial
interface module.
• Within the LRU, the dedicated digital logic and microprocessor
systems that process data locally, each makes use of their own
local bus system that invariably uses parallel data transfer
which is ideal for moving large amounts of data very quickly
but only over short distances.
 SERIAL BUS PRINCIPLES
• A simple system for serial data transfer between two line
replaceable units, each comprising an avionic system, is below.
• Within the LRU data is transferred using an internal parallel
data bus (either 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits wide). The link between the
two LRUs is made using a simple serial cable (often with only
two, four or six conductors).
• The data to be transferred can be synchronous (using clock
signals generated locally within each LRU) or it may be
asynchronous (i.e. Self-clocking).
• In this system, data is transferred using a shielded twisted pair
( STP ) bus cable with a number of coupler panels that are
located at appropriate points in the aircraft (e.g. The flight deck,
avionics bay, etc.).
• Each coupler panel allows a number of avionic units to be
connected to the bus using a stub cable.
• In order to optimize the speed of data transfer and minimize
problems associated with reflection and mismatch, the bus cable
must be terminated at each end using a matched bus terminator.
A simple system for serial data transfer between two avionic systems
A PRACTICAL AIRCRAFT DATA BUS
• Bus couplers are produced as either voltage mode or current
mode units depending upon whether they use voltage or current
sensing devices.
• Within each LRU/avionics unit, an interface is provided that
performs the required serial-to-parallel or parallel-to serial data
conversion.
• ARINC 429
• The ARINC 429 data bus has proved to be one of the most
popular bus standards used in commercial aircraft.
• ARINC 429 employs a unidirectional data bus standard known
as mark 33 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS).
Messages are transmitted in packets of 32-bits at a bit rate of
either 12.5 or 100 kilobits per second (referred to as low and
high bit rate respectively).
• Because the bus is unidirectional, separate ports, couplers and
cables will be required when an LRU wishes to be able to both
transmit and receive data. Note that a large number of bus
connections may be required on an aircraft that uses
sophisticated avionic systems.
• ARINC 429 is a two wire differential bus which can connect a
single transmitter or source to one or more receivers.
• The term ‘ differential ’ simply means that neither of the two
twisted wires is grounded and Both convey signal voltages but
of opposite polarity.
• This arrangement improves noise immunity which appears as a
common mode signal induced on both of the conductors.
• Transmission of sequential words is separated by at least four
bit times of NULL (zero voltage). This eliminates the need for a
• Digital word; digital data is transmitted by sending a series of
electrical pulses over the ARINC 429 bus. An individual pulse
is referred to as a bit.
• It is important to note that the received voltage on a serial bus
depends on line length and the number of receivers connected to
the bus. With ARINC 429, no more than 20 receivers should be
connected to a single bus.
• Other, faster and more sophisticated, bus systems are found on
modern aircraft. They include ARINC 629 which supports a 20
mbps data rate (20 times faster than ARINC 429), FDDI
• The Label; the first eight bits of the word (octal coded),
identifies the type information contained in the data e.g.
airspeed, exhaust gas temperature etc. there are large numbers
of words being transmitted on the bus and the receiver decodes
the labels and selects only the words it requires.
• The label is expressed in three octal characters that are coded in
binary. The label is unique in that the least significant bit is last
in the sequence. the label bit is therefore read in reverse order
• The source/destination identifier; this is used to identify the
source or destination of a word and are bits 9 and 10 in the
word. e.g. a source identifier is used when the transmitting LRU
of a multi LRU system needs to be recognized, a destination
identifier is used when specific words need to be directed to a
specific LRU in a multi LRU system. The all call code 00
directs the word to all installation.
• The Data field; contains the specific data related to the label e.g.
how many knots for airspeed, value of exhaust gas temperature
etc.
• for a binary word this is contained in bits 11-28 and for a binary
coded decimal word it is in 11-29. any bits not used are filled
with logic 0s these are known as pad bits and have no data
significance.
• The sign status matrix; bits 29,30,31 for a binary word and
30,31 for BCD word identifies the characteristics of the word,
e.g. north or south, positive or negative. If the source detects an
internal failure, it sends a failure warning. This indicates its
output is invalid by setting the SSM bits to 30 and 31 to logic
00. for normal operation, the SSM 30 and 31 are both logic 1.
• The parity bit; the last bit, bit 32. ARINC 429 uses
odd parity i.e. the total number of logic 1s in the word
must be an odd number. if it is not an odd number,
then the parity bit is set to 1.
• This is used in the system to check for errors, if on
receiving a signal it does not contain an odd number
of 1s, then there is something wrong with the
transmission and a fault signal would be generated.
 ARINC 429 ELECTRICAL XTERISTICS
• ARINC 429 uses bipolar return to zero (RZ) modulation
method. The information on an ARINC 429 bus can be in one
of the three states; HI, NULL, or LO
• The digital data word consists of a 32 bit word in bipolar form.
Each bit is either in logic 1 or logic 0 state. The null is used to
separate the different bits and the different words.
• The ARINC bus is; self clocking; the receiver senses the null
between bits to generate its internal clocking. Self
synchronizing; the receiver senses the four bit null between
• Voltage level
• The information on an ARINC 429 bus is transmitted in bit
form. The first half of each bit represent the logic state of the
bit. A high pulse (+10v) signifies a logic 1. a low pulse (-10v)
signifies a logic 0. the +/-10vis the differential voltage across
the two output terminals of the shielded pair of twisted wires.
• The second half of each bit always returns to the null level (zero
volts between terminals). The shield is grounded at both ends.
 ARINC 629
• ARINC 629 data bus is an unshielded, twisted pair of wires
bonded and terminated at both ends. 120 LRUs can use one
ARINC 629 data bus up to 100 metres long. Data is sent and
received at a rate of 2 mega bits per second. The system has
three parts; data bus cable, current mode couplers and stub
cables.
• Xteristics
• Many LRUs send data one at a time in sequence
• Communication on ARINC 629 is bidirectional; LRUs may
transmit and receive data on the same bus.
• All data on the bus is available to all the LRUs on that bus.
• Data Buses
• The data bus cable is a pair of twisted wires that are not
shielded. The bus allows any terminal to transmit and receive on
a single cable. Each terminal is clamped onto the cable by a bus
coupler that does not require cutting into the bus cable. There
are bus terminators at each end of the cable.
• Bus Couplers
• Each LRU uses one or more current mode couplers to connect
to data buses. The bus couplers are referred to as current mode
couplers because they use the method of inductive coupling.
• A current mode coupler and its terminal (terminal controller and
serial interface module) move data to and from the bus.
• Only one terminal on a bus transmits at a time. Each terminal
listens to the bus and waits for a stop in data movement on the
bus from other LRUs before it transmits.
• Stub Cable
• Each LRU is connected to its coupler by a stub cable. The stub
cable contains two sets of shielded twisted pair of wires. One
pair is used for transmitting and the other for receiving. The
stub cable can be up to 40 meters long.
• ARINC 629 is a newer digital data bus format that offers more
flexibility and greater speed than the 429 system. The 629
system permits up to 120 devices to share a bidirectional serial
data bus which can be up to 100m long.
• ARINC 629 has two major improvements over the 429 system;
(1) there is a substantial weight saving. The 429 system requires
a separate wire for each transmitter, the 629 system will save
hundreds of pounds by using one data bus for all transmitters.
(2) the 629 system operates at speeds up to 2Mbits/s, the 429 is
capable of only 100Kbits/s. the diagram shows simplified
diagrams of the 429 and 629 bus structures.
• Here it can be seen that the 629 system requires much less data
cable. At any given time, only one user can transmit and one or
more units can receive data. This open bus scenario poses some
interesting problems for the 629 system;
• (1) how to ensure that no single transmitter dominates the use of
the bus.
• (2) how to ensure that the higher priority systems have a chance
to talk first and
• (3) how to make the bus compatible with a variety of systems.
• The answer is found in a system called the Periodic Aperiodic
Multi-transmitter Bus. i.e.
• (1) any transmitter can make only one transmission per terminal
interval (TI).
• (2) each transmitter is inactive until the terminal gap time for
that transmitter has ended.
• (3) each transmitter can make only one transmission; then it
must wait until the synchronization gap has occurred before it
can make a second transmission ARINC 629.
• The Terminal Interval (TI) is a time period common to all
transmitters. The TI begins immediately after any use starts
transmission. The TI inhibits another transmission from that
same user until after the TI time period.
• A periodic interval occurs when all users complete their desired
transmission prior to the completion of the TI. If the TI is
exceeded (aperiodic interval), one or more users have
transmitted a longer than average message.
• The Terminal Gap (TG) is a unique time period for each user. The
terminal gat time determines the priority for user transmissions.
• Users with a high priority have a short TG. Users with a lesser
need to communicate (lower priority) have a longer TG.
• No two terminals can ever have the same terminal gap. The TG is
flexible and can be determined through software changes in the
receivers/transmitters.
• The Synchronization Gap (SG) is a time period common to all
users. This gap can be thought of as the reset signal for the
transmitters.
• Since the synchronization gap is longer than the terminal gap,
the SG will occur on the bus only after each user has had a
chance to transmit.
• If a user chooses not to transmit for a time equal to or longer
than the SG, the bus is open to all users ones again. Any message
transmitted by a bus user has a limited time in which it is
allowed to be transmitted.
• The message transmitted is composed of a maximum of 16 word
strings. The word string contains a label and up to 256 data
words. Each word is limited to 16 bits of data and a parity bit.
• The data buses between LRUs and LRMs (line replaceable
modules) may be of different types and data may be transferred
at different speeds. e.g.
• ARINC 629, sends and receives data at 2 megabits per second
• ARINC 429, one way buses sends and receives data at low
speed (12 and 14 kilobits per second) and high speed (100
kilobits per second).
• ARINC 453 is a one way bus that sends data at 1 megabit per
second.
• ARINC 717 is a one way bus that sends and receives data at
128 words per second.
• ARINC 618 is a one way bus that sends and receives data at
2400bits per second.
• RS-422 is a one way bus that sends and receives data at
9600bits per second.
• RS-232 is a one way bus that sends and receives data on a
coaxial wire up to 20 kilobits per second.
• 10 base T, RS-485, all are a two way bus that sends
and receives data on a twisted, shielded pair of wires
at 10 megabits per second.
• 10 base 2 is a two way bus that uses a single coaxial
wire connected to each LRU/LRM on the bus. At 10
megabits per second.