Lecture 4

Introduction to Projections and coordinate

systems

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 Spatial references
 Spatial references are important when building applications that use
geographic data. A spatial reference defines the coordinate system used to
locate the geometry for a feature.
 It controls how and where features are displayed in a map or scene. When
building an application, all geographic data must either use a common spatial
reference or be projected to a spatial reference in order to accurately display
features and perform spatial analyses.
 There are many different types of spatial references for defining geographic
data. To simplify accessing and referencing them, they are commonly referred
to by a well-known ID (WKID) — an integer value.
 Two of the most common WKIDs are 4326 (also known as WGS84), and 3857
(also known as Web Mercator).
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 Why Spatial references are important
 ArcGIS allows you to use thousands of different spatial references and offers
many tools for working with spatial references. Many governments, militaries,
and other organizations mandate that a specific one be used.
 To integrate spatial data together into a map or when performing analysis,
ArcGIS must know where things are located on the Earth's surface.
 This is done using coordinates, which are expressed relative to a coordinate
system, or an accepted frame of reference around a model of the Earth's
surface.
 Not all coordinates and their associated coordinate systems are alike: they can
use different units (for example degrees minutes seconds, decimal degrees, or
meters) and they can be based on different types of models.
 A spatial reference provides all the information needed for reprojection.
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 Coordinate systems and projections
 A reference framework consisting of: A set of points, lines and/or surfaces,
and a set of rules, used to define the positions of points in space, in either two
or three dimensions is known as Coordinate systems.
 Data is defined in both horizontal and vertical coordinate systems. Horizontal
coordinate systems locate data across the surface of the earth, and are split into
categories:

 Geographic coordinate systems (GCSs)

 Projected coordinate systems (PCSs)
 Local coordinate systems
 Vertical coordinate systems (VCSs)
Projection – a method of converting locations from one coordinate system to
another. 4
 Geographic Coordinate systems
 A reference framework consisting of: A set of points, lines and/or surfaces,
and a set of rules, used to define the positions of points in space, in either two
or three dimensions is known as Coordinate systems.
 It is A reference system that uses:
 Latitude and longitude to define the locations of points on the surface of a
sphere or spheroid.
 A geographic coordinate system definition includes a datum, prime meridian,
and angular unit of measurement

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 Projected Coordinate systems
 Projected coordinate systems (PCS) are described as planar (two-dimensional),
Cartesian, or flat. They define a flat 2D Cartesian coordinate system projected
onto a flat surface for display.
 Unlike a geographic coordinate system, a projected coordinate system has
constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions.
 A projected coordinate system is always based on a geographic coordinate
system that references a specific datum, a map projection, any parameters
needed by the map projection, and a linear unit of measure.
 There are various projections with different desirable characteristics: some
preserve accuracy in particular areas of the Earth, others are better at
maintaining the shape of features, while others favor accurate area or distance
measurements
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 Local and vertical Coordinate systems
 Local coordinate systems are often unrelated to any other coordinate system.
The origin and the x,y coordinate units correspond to a local point of
reference.
 Because the relationship of a local coordinate system to another coordinate
system cannot be established easily, these are sometimes referred to as
unknown coordinate systems.
 Vertical coordinate systems (VCSs) are significant when working with 3D
data. A VCS defines vertical linear units of measure, the origin of z-values,
and whether z-values are "positive up" (representing heights above a surface)
or "positive down" (representing depths below a surface).

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 Planar and Cartesian Coordinate System
 Planar Coordinate System: A two-dimensional measurement system that
locates features on a plane based on their distance from an origin (0,0) along
two perpendicular axes. Each point on the plane is defined by an x,y
coordinate. Relative measures of distance, area, and direction are constant.
 Cartesian Coordinate System: A two-dimensional, planar coordinate system
in which horizontal distance is measured along an x-axis and vertical distance
is measured along a y-axis. X and Y values are positive only in the upper-
right quadrant

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Planar and Cartesian Coordinate System

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 Projection Terminologies
 Datum is the reference specifications of a measurement system, usually a
system of coordinate positions on a surface (a horizontal datum) or heights
above or below a surface (a vertical datum).
 Geodetic Datum: A datum that is the basis for calculating positions on the
earth's surface or heights above or below the earth's surface.
 Datums are based on specific Ellipsoids and sometimes have the same name
as the ellipsoid
 Geocentric Datum – A horizontal geodetic datum based on an ellipsoid that
has its origin at the earth's center of mass.
 Examples are the World Geodetic System of 1984, the North American Datum
of 1983, and the Geodetic Datum of Australia of 1994.
 Local Datum – A Horizontal Geodetic Datum based on an ellipsoid that has
its origin on the surface of the earth, 10
Projection Terminologies

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 Projection Terminologies
 Ellipsoid/Spheriod: A three-dimensional, closed geometric shape, all
planar sections of which are ellipses or circles.
 A three-dimensional shape obtained by rotating an ellipse about its minor
axis, with dimensions that either approximate the earth as a whole, or
with a part that approximates the corresponding portion of the geoid.
 Transformation: The process of converting the coordinates of a map or an
image from one system to another, typically by shifting, rotating, scaling,
skewing, or projecting them.
 Geographic Transformation :a method to convert locations from one
datum to another datum as part of a projection.

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 Metric properties of maps
 Map projections can be used in a map to preserve one or more of the
following properties, though never all of them simultaneously:
 Area
 Shape
 Direction
 Distance
 purpose of a map must be considered to determine which projection should
be used.
 To select a map projection, determine which of the properties is the most
important for the project and select the coordinate system or map projection
that best preserves that property.

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 Map Projection
 To represent parts of the surface of the Earth on a flat paper map or on a
computer screen, the curved horizontal reference surface must be mapped onto
the 2D mapping plane.
 A method by which the curved surface of the earth is portrayed on a flat
surface. This requires a systematic mathematical transformation of the earth's
graticule of lines of longitude and latitude onto a plane.
 This is the method used to transform the earth’s spheroid (real world) to a flat
surface.
 A map projection is a mathematically described technique of how to represent
the Earth’s curved surface on a flat map.

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Map Projection
 Map Projection
The World as seen from Space in 3D
 Map Projection
The World Projected onto a Flat Surface
 Map Projection
The World as seen from an Oregon perspective
 Map Projection
The World as seen from a
Mexican perspective
 Map Projection

The World seen from a Columbian

perspective
 Map Projection
The World as seen from an Indonesian perspective
 Map Projection
The World as seen from
a Kenyan perspective
 Map Projection
The World as seen from France
 Map Projection
The World as seen from an Indian perspective
 Map Projection
The World as seen from a South African perspective
Africa_Lambert_Conformal_Conic_SA
 Map Projection
 Projections – Going from 3D to Flat Maps
 Projections are created by transferring points on the earth onto a flat surface.
 Think of this as having a light in the middle of the earth, shining through the
earth’s surface, onto the projection surface. There are three basic methods for
this:
 Planar – projection surface laid flat against the earth
 Conic – cone is placed on or through the surface of the earth
 Cylindrical – projection surface wrapped around the earth
 Where the projection surface touches the earth is called the “Standard Line.”

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 Map Projection
Projections – Polar Planar Projection
 Map Projection
Projections – Conic Projection
 Map Projection
Projections – Cylindrical Projection
 Map Projection
Projections –Transverse Mercator
 Choosing a Proper Projection
 Choosing the proper projection for a map is vital to correctly presenting the
map's information or message.
 A proper projection helps the viewer correctly interpret the information
contained on the map, while the misuse of projection (either intentionally or
unintentionally) gives viewers a skewed perspective of the area or
information they are viewing.
 Poor use of projection can have a variety of negative consequences, such as
the viewer gaining an inaccurate mental perception of an area or incorrect
understanding of the map's message
 Maps are created for a variety of purposes, and as a result, there is no single
map projection that is better than the rest. Therefore, when choosing a map
projection, it is useful to consider a number of factors.
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 Choosing a Proper Projection
 Scale: choosing the map projection depends largely on the scale of the map,
and projection choice is more important for small-scale maps (those that
cover large areas) such as regions or continents. Use of a suitable projection
for world maps is particularly important.
 Size and Shape of the Area: different projections should be chosen for
areas on a North-South versus East-West orientation.
 Location: longitudinal location of the map area determines what type of
projection should be used.
 Purpose: the intended use of a map should be tied directly to its projection.
Before choosing a projection, it is important to consider the objectives of the
map user.
 Audience: the sophistication of the map user should be considered when
determining the complexity of the projection 32
 Classification of map projections
 A fundamental projection classification is based on the type of
projection surface onto which the globe is conceptually
projected.
 The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic
surface in contact with the earth, followed by an implied scaling
operation. These surfaces are cylindrical (e.g. Mercator), conic
(e.g., Albers), or azimuthal or plane (e.g. stereographic).
 Some of the more common categories are:
 Preserving direction (azimuthal), a trait possible only from one
or two points to every other point.
 Preserving shape locally (conformal or orthomorphic).
 Preserving area (equal-area or equiareal or equivalent or
authalic).
 Preserving distance (equidistant), a trait possible only between
one or two points and every other point.
 Preserving shortest route, a trait preserved only by the
gnomonic projection
 Geometric shape – Cylindrical
 The reference spherical surface is projected onto a cylinder
wrapped around the globe.
 The cylinder is then cut lengthwise and unwrapped to form
a flat map.
 In flattened form, a cylindrical projection produces a rectan
gular map with  the equator in the middle and the
poles at the top and bottom. 

 General characteristics

 Lines of latitude and longitude intersect at 90 degrees

 Meridians are equidistant
 Forms a rectangular map
 Scale along the equator or standard parallels is true
Geometric shape – Cylindrical
 Geometric shape – Conic
 The reference spherical surface is projected onto a cone placed over
the globe.
 The cone is then cut along a convenient meridian and unfolded into a
flat surface in the shape of a circle with a sector missing.
 All parallels are arcs of circles with a pole (the apex of the original
cone) as their common center
 Meridians appear as straight lines converging toward the apex of the
original cone
Geometric shape – Conic
 Geometric shape – Conic
• General characteristics
 Lines of latitude and longitude are intersecting at 90
degrees
 Meridians are straight lines
 Parallels are concentric circular arcs
 Scale along the standard parallel(s) is true
 The pole is represented as an arc or a point
 Geometric shape – Planar / Azimuthal
 The reference spherical surface is projected onto a plane or
onto a flat surface.
 A flat sheet of paper is tangent to the globe at one point
 Longitude lines converge at the point of contact and radiate
outward from the pole at their true angle like the spokes on
a wheel, the distance between them increasing as the
distance from the contact point increases.
 Latitude lines appear as a series of concentric circles.
Geometric shape – Planar / Azimuthal
 Geometric shape – Planar / Azimuthal
• General characteristics
– Lines of latitude and longitude are intersecting at 90
degrees

– Meridians are straight lines

– Parallels are concentric circles

– Forms a circular map

– Scale near the center is true

– The pole is represented as a point

Orientation of the projection
• Three aspects to each of the three types of projections.
1. Equatorial (Normal)  At equator
Cylindrical Conical Azimuthal or
Planar

2. Transverse  At poles
Cylindrical Conical Azimuthal or
Planar

3. Oblique  Between poles and equator

Cylindrical Conical Azimuthal or
Planar
 Secant Projections
• These are projections in which the plane, cylinder or cone
intersect the earth (globe) as opposed to touching it
tangentially.
 Conformal projections – properties

– Shapes are represented accurately and without distortion for

small areas.

– Local angles are preserved; that is angles about every point on

the projected map are the same as the angles around the point
on the curved reference surface.

– A map projection is conformal when at any point the scale is the

same in every direction.

– Preservation of angles makes conformal map projections suitable

for navigation charts, weather maps, topographic mapping, and
large scale surveying.
 Conformal projections – distortions

• A conformal map distorts area

• Most features are depicted too large or too small

• The amount of distortion, however, is regular along parallel lines in

the map.

• Examples of common conformal projections include Lambert

Conformal Conic, Mercator, Transverse Mercator, and Stereographic

projection
Conformal projections – distortions
 Equal-area projections - properties

• A map projection is equal area if every part, as well as the whole, has the
same area as the corresponding part on Earth.

• All areas on the map are proportional to the same areas on the Earth.

• Given any two regions A and B on the Earth and the corresponding regions
A' and B' on an equal-area map, the surface ratios A/A' and B/B' are
identical

• Lines of latitude are unequally spaced parallel lines furthest apart near the
Equator, changing the spacing of the parallels is the method used to
preserve equal areas
 Equal-area projections - distortions
• Linear or distance distortion often occurs in such projections.

• The intersecting angles between parallels & meridians may not be a right angle.

• The shape is often skewed

• A combination of the above can occur.

• The distortion are greater in high latitudes near the poles.

• Examples of common equal area projections include Albers equal area, Lambert cylindrical

equal area,
Equal-area projections - distortions
 Equal distance - properties
• The preservation of spherical great circle distance on a map
projection.
• In most projections there are one or more standard lines
along which scale remains constant (true scale).
• Distances measured along these lines are proportional to the
same distance measurement on the curved reference surface
• No projection is equidistant between all points on a map
•  Equidistant maps show true distances only from the center
of the projection or along a special set of lines
 Equal distance - distortions
• Equidistant projections are neither conformal nor equal-area

• Free of angular and scale distortion only along the one or two standard

parallels.

• Distortion is constant along any given parallel.

• Equidistant projections are used in air and sea navigation charts, as well as

radio and seismic mapping. They are also used in atlases and thematic

mapping.

• Examples of equidistant projections are azimuthal equidistant, equidistant

conic, and equirectangular projections.

Equal distance - distortions
 Choosing a Proper Projection - Purpose
• It is important to ask this question to determine whether there are particular
map properties that you want to try to preserve.
– If you are creating a thematic map that people may use to compare relative
areas, you should probably choose a projection that preserves area (i.e., an
equivalent projection).
– If you are creating a map for reference or navigation purposes (e.g.,
nautical or aviation map), where the angular relationships between features
are important, it is best to choose a conformal projection (i.e., one that
preserves angles).
– Other maps may be used to calculate or show true distances or directions
(e.g., flight distances from one city to other cities around the world).
 Choosing a Proper Projection – Extend
• The larger the area you need to map, the more you need to think
about where the distortion will fall on your map, as the total
amount of distortion present on the map will be greater.
– Cylindrical or pseudo-cylindrical projections are often the best choice
for very small-scale maps (i.e., those that aim to show the entire world).
– Conic projections are often a good choice for hemispherical or
continental-sized areas. For example, the United States, Australia,
Canada and South Africa all commonly use Albers Equal Area and
Lambert Conformal Conic (two different conic projections) for maps
that show the entirety of each country.
 Choosing a Proper Projection Location
• For map location, the following conventions can
be applied:
• Low-latitude regions, use cylindrical projections;
• Middle-latitude areas, use conical
• Polar regions, use planar.
 WHAT IS SCALE
► Scaleis the relationship of the distance on the
map/data to the actual distance on the ground.

► Map detail is determined by the source scale of the

data: the finer the scale, the more detail.

► Source scale is the scale of the data source (i.e.

toposheet or satellite image) from which data is
digitized (into boundaries, roads, Landcover, etc. in a
GIS).
 Large scale and Small scale

►A big confusion is caused by the two terms

"large scale" and "small scale".

► "Largescale" refers to maps on which objects

are relatively large, "small scale" to maps on
which objects are relatively small.

► Large scale and small scale are subjective

terms.
 Large scale and Small
scale
► For example a town planner who is used to
working with plans at 1:1000, may consider
1:25 000 a small scale map, while an atlas
compiler commonly working with maps of
scales 1:5 000 000 would consider 1:25 000 a
large scale map.

► Spatial features as Point/Line/Polygon.

Large scale and Small scale