UNIT - I

FM, TDMA, CDMA

Frequency Modulation
• Modulation is the addition of information to
an electronic or optical carrier signal. A carrier
signal is one with a steady waveform --
constant height (amplitude) and frequency.
Information can be added to the carrier by
varying its amplitude and frequency.
TDMA
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (Digital European
Cordless Telecommunications), is a standard primarily used for
creating cordless telephone systems.
ALOHA
ALOHA
ALOHA & SLOTTED ALOHA
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
• The capacity of ALOHA or slotted ALOHA is
limited by the large vulnerability period of a
packet.
• By listening before transmitting, stations try to
reduce the vulnerability period to one propagation
delay.
• This is the basis of CSMA (Kleinrock and Tobagi,
UCLA, 1975).
 CSMA
• Station that wants to transmit first listens to
check if another transmission is in progress
(carrier sense).
• If medium is in use, station waits; else, it
transmits.
• Collisions can still occur.
• Transmitter waits for ACK; if no ACKs,
retransmits.
 CSMA Flavors
• 1-persistent CSMA (IEEE 802.3)
– If medium idle, transmit; if medium busy, wait until idle; then
transmit with p=1.
– If collision, waits random period and starts again.
• Non-persistent CSMA: if medium idle, transmit; otherwise wait a
random time before re-trying.
– Thus, station does not continuously sense channel when it is in use.
• P-persistent: when channel idle detected, transmits packet in the first
slot with p.
– Slotted channel, i.e., with probability q = p-1, defers to next slot.
 CSMA/CD
• CSMA with collision detection.
• Problem: when frames collide, medium is
unusable for duration of both (damaged)
frames.
• For long frames (when compared to
propagation time), considerable waste.
• What if station listens while transmitting?
 CSMA/CD Protocol
1. If medium idle, transmit; otherwise 2.
2. If medium busy, wait until idle, then transmit
with p=1.
3. If collision detected, transmit brief jamming
signal and abort transmission.
4. After aborting, wait random time, try again.
 DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple
Access
• Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted
Aloha (assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival and
packet length)
• Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
– a sender reserves a future time-slot
– sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without
collision
– reservation also causes higher delays
– typical scheme for satellite links
• Examples for reservation algorithms:
– Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA)
– Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
– Reservation-TDMA
 Access method DAMA: Explicit
Reservation
•Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):
– two modes:
• ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
• reserved mode for data transmission within successful
reserved slots (no collisions possible)
– it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list
consistent at any point in time and, therefore, all
stations have to synchronize from time to time
collision

t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
 Access method DAMA: PRMA
•Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):
– a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
– stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted aloha
principle
– once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically
assigned to this station in all following frames as long as the station
has data to send
– competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was empty
in the last frame
reservation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time-slot
ACDABA-F
frame1 A C D A B A F
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C A B A
AC-ABAF- collision at
frame3 A B A F
A---BAFD reservation
frame4 A B A F D
attempts
ACEEBAFD
frame5 A C E E B A F D
t
Access method DAMA: Reservation-
TDMA
•Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
– every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
– every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k
data-slots using this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
– other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to
a round-robin sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
e.g. N=6, k=2
N mini-slots N * k data-slots

reservations other stations can use free data-slots

for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme
 MACA - collision avoidance
• MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short
signaling packets for collision avoidance
– RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a
receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet
– CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon
as it is ready to receive
• Signaling packets contain
– sender address
– receiver address
– packet size

• Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as

DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
 MACA examples
• MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
– A and C want to
send to B RTS
– A sends RTS first CTS CTS
– C waits after receiving A B C
CTS from B

• MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

– B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal RTS RTS
– now C does not have
CTS
to wait for it cannot
receive CTS from A A B C
 Polling mechanisms
• If one terminal can be heard by all others, this “central”
terminal ( base station) can poll all other terminals
according to a certain scheme
– now all schemes known from fixed networks can be used
(typical mainframe - terminal scenario)
• Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
– base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
– terminals ready to send can now transmit a random number
without collision with the help of CDMA or FDMA (the
random number can be seen as dynamic address)
– the base station now chooses one address for polling from
the list of all random numbers (collision if two terminals
choose the same address)
– the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues
polling the next terminal
– this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list
 ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)
• Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy tone”
– the base station signals on the downlink (base station to
terminals) if the medium is free or not
– terminals must not send if the medium is busy
– terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops
– the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions
via the busy tone and acknowledgements, respectively (media
access is not coordinated within this approach)
– mechanism used, e.g.,
for CDPD
(USA, integrated
into AMPS)
 CDMA- Code Division Multiple Access
– Fully digital wireless data transmission system
• Not designed for voice at all
– Uses special random numbers to encode bits of
information.
– Allows multiple access by assigning different users
different random numbers on the same channel.
• Users have control of a very wide channel bandwidth
1.5 to 5 MHz
– The only limit to the system is the computing
process of the base station and it’s ability to
separate noise from actual data.
• Shannon’s Theorem / SQR
• CDMA is a technology that allows multiple users to share the whole
spectrum at all the time unlike TDMA and FDMA.
• CDMA has wider bandwidth compared to TDMA & FDMA.
• Requires digital transmission
 How CDMA works?
CDMA transmitter:
• The voice has to be digitize (Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) then compressed)
• Each user is given a unique PN code.
• The Codes must have low cross-correlation
• The transmitter multiplies the code by the data to
get the coded message (bit)
CDMA Receiver:
• The received signal is multiplied again by
the same code that used in the transmitter.
• Integrate over bit duration and, then using a
hard decision to get the transmitted
message (bit)
 PCM
• PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog
signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
 Before sampling, filter the signal to limit the
maximum frequency of the signal as it affects the
sampling rate.
 (Signal filtering is often used to eliminate
unwanted frequencies from the receiver signal.)
 Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the
signal, i.e remove high frequency components that
affect the signal shape.
4.30
Components of PCM encoder

4.31