SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

PRINCIPLE OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

• Advantages of Satellite Communication
• The following are the advantages of satellite communication:
• Installments of circuits are easy.
• The elasticity of these circuits is excellent.
• With the help of satellite communication, every corner of the earth can be
covered.
• The user fully controls the network.
• Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
• The following are the disadvantages of satellite communication:
• Initial expenditure is expensive.
• There are chances of blockage of frequencies.
• Propagation and interference.
• Applications of Satellite Communication
• Applications of Satellite Communication
• Telephone
• Television
• Digital cinema
• Radio broadcasting
• Amateur radio
• Internet access
• Military
• Disaster Management
 Satellite Orbits
• A satellites orbit the Earth in one of two basic types of orbit.
• Circular satellite orbit: For a circular orbit, the distance from the Earth
remains the same at all times.
• Elliptical satellite orbit: The elliptical orbit changes the distance to the
Earth
• Circular satellite orbit definitions
• Circular orbits are classified in a number of ways such as Low Earth orbit,
Medium Earth Orbit, Geosynchronous Orbit, Geostationary orbit and High
Earth Orbit
Satellite Orbits
Satellite Orbits
 SATELLITE ORBIT DEFINITIONS

• Low Earth OrbitLEO 200 – 1200KM

• Medium Earth Orbit MEO 1200 – 35790KM
• Geosynchronous Orbit GSO 35790KM Orbits once a day, but not necessarily in the
same direction as the rotation of the Earth - not necessarily stationary
• Geostationary Orbit GEO It flies at an altitude of about 35,790 km. Orbits once a
day and moves in the same direction as the Earth and therefore appears stationary
above the same point on the Earth's surface. Can only be above the Equator.
• High Earth Orbit HEO The High Earth orbit satellite is the only non-circular orbit of
the four types.
• HEO satellite operates with an elliptical orbit, with a maximum altitude (apogee)
similar to GEO, and a minimum altitude (perigee) similar to the LEO.
• The HEO satellites used for the special applications where coverage of high latitude
locations is required.
 Satellite Orbits
• Polar orbits :
• Satellites on polar orbits circle the planet on a near-polar inclination,
• maintaining an altitude of at least 700 km.
• These satellites pass over the equator at the same solar time every single
day,
• which allows it to collect data consistently.
 MULTIPLE ACCESS

• The ability of the satellite to carry many signals at the same time is known as
multiple access.
• Multiple access allows communication capability of the satellite to be shared
among a large number of earth stations.
• There are three multiple access techniques
• They are
• TDMA-Time division multiple access
• FDMA-Frequency division multiple access
• CDMA-Code division multiple access
FDMA-Frequency division multiple access

• FDMA is one way to enable multiple users to share an entire

communication resource.
• In FDMA (short for frequency division multiple access) each user
uses a different band of frequencies
• to communicate his or her information.
 Features of TDMA

• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several

users, where each user makes use of non-overlapping
time slots.
• The number of time slots per frame depends on several
factors, such as modulation technique, available
bandwidth, etc.
• Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not
continuous, but occurs in bursts.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and
reception, thus duplexers are not required.
 Features of TDMA
• in TDMA systems, the transmission rates are generally very high as
compared to FDMA channels.
• In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized.
• High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of
burst transmissions.
• TDMA systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA.
• Efficiency of TDMA: The frame efficiency is a measure of the percentage
of transmitted data that contains information as opposed to providing
overhead for the access scheme.
• The transmitted data may include source and channel coding bits, so the
efficiency of a system is generally less than frame efficiency.
 What is FDMA?

• FDMA is an abbreviation for "Frequency Division Multiple Access".

• It is a form of channelization protocol.
• In this system, the bandwidth is separated into different frequency
bands.
• Each station is assigned a band to transmit data, and
• that band is always reserved for that station.
• A tiny band of unused frequency separates different stations'
frequency bands, and
• these unused frequency bands are known as guard bands,
• which prevent station interference.
What is FDMA?
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) :

• FDMA is a type of channelization protocol.

• In this bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands.
• Each station is allocated with band to send data and
• that band is reserved for particular station for all the time
What is FDMA?
 What is FDMA
• The frequency band is divided into channels of equal
bandwidth so that each conversation is carried on a
different .
• In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the
adjacent signal spectra to minimize crosstalk between the
channels.
• A specific frequency band is given to one person, and
• it will received by identifying each of the frequency on the
receiving end.
• It is often used in the first generation of analog mobile
phone.
 Advantages of FDMA

• In terms of hardware resources, it is very simple and easy

to use.
• The system's complexity is modest.
• All stations may constantly run for 24 hours without
waiting for their chance.
• It reduces inter-symbol interference.
 Disadvantages
• It only works with analogue signals.
• There isn't much room for flexibility.
• The transponders require extensive bandwidth.
• The traffic's carrying capacity is not very high.
• RF (Radio Frequency) filters must fulfil stringent adjacent
channel rejection specifications.
• It can enhance the system's cost.
• The highest bit rate per channel is small and fixed.
 What is TDMA?

• TDMA is an abbreviation for "Time Division Multiple

Access".
• It is a channelization system that divides channel bandwidth
into many stations simultaneously.
• Each station is assigned a time slot and may only transmit
data during the same time slot.
• Each station should be aware of the beginning and location
of its time slot.
• Synchronization between stations is needed for TDMA.
 What is TDMA?

• TDMA is a form of time-division multiplexing (TDM)

• in which numerous transmitters are connected to a
single receiver
• The uplink from a cellular phone to a base station is
particularly troublesome
• because it may move and modify the timing
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) :
• TDMA is the channelization protocol in which
bandwidth of channel is divided into various stations
on the time basis.
• There is a time slot given to each station, the station
can transmit data during that time slot only .
• Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot
and the location of the time slot.
• TDMA requires synchronization between different
stations.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) :
 Advantages of TDMA

• It may transmit data at speeds ranging from 64

kbps to 120 Mbps.
• It separates clients based on time guarantees
that no interference from concurrent
transmission will occur.
• It extends the client's battery life by
communicating alone for a part of the time
during discussions.
 Disadvantages

• In TDMA, slot allocation will be complicated.

• In TDMA, high data rates needed equalization.
• Network and spectrum planning is a complex and
time-consuming process requiring great expertise
and resources.
 What is CDMA?

• CDMA is an abbreviation for "Code Division Multiple

Access".
• The CDMA system allows several users to
simultaneously utilize the same frequency band
defined by a unique code.
• These codes are selected in such a way that if the
code is utilized for a second time,
• the user who knows the code may identify that
specific user among the other users.
 What is CDMA?

• : In CDMA, all the stations can transmit data simultaneously.

• It allows each station to transmit data over the entire frequency all
the time.
• Multiple simultaneous transmissions are separated by unique code
sequence.
• Each user is assigned with a unique code sequence
• In the above figure, there are 4 stations marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
• Data assigned with respective stations as d1, d2, d3 and d4 and
• the code assigned with respective stations as c1, c2, c3 and c4.
What is CDMA?
 Advantages of CDMA

• It has an extremely high spectral capacity to support

many users in MHz of bandwidth.
• There is no need for synchronization.
• CDMA channels are difficult to decode, so they
enhance cellular communication security.
• It offers better secure transmission.
 Disadvantages

• One of the main issues with the CDMA system is

channel pollution,
• which occurs when a user's phone has two or more
cell sites, but only one of them is powerful.
• As the number of users rises, the CDMA system's
performance decreases.
• It has a high price because of the greater equipment.
 key differences between FDMA, CDMA, and CDMA.
• 1.FDMA distributes a single bandwidth among multiple stations by
dividing it into sub-channels,
• whereas TDMA only shares the time of transmission through the
satellite, not the channel.
• On the other hand, CDMA shares both time and bandwidth among
multiple stations by allocating a unique code to each slot.
• 2.FDMA only requires the guard bands between adjacent channels,
• whereas TDMA requires the guard time of the adjacent slots.
• On the other hand, CDMA requires both guard time and guard
bands.
 key differences between FDMA, CDMA, and CDMA.
• 3. FDAM has a low data rate,
• whereas TDMA has a medium data rate.
• On the other hand, CDMA has a high data rate.
• 4. FDMA doesn't need any synchronization,
• whereas TDMA system needs synchronization.
• On the other hand, CDMA doesn't need any synchronization.
• 6. The FDMA does not require a code word, and neither does the TDMA.
• On the other hand, CDMA needs the code word.
• 8. FDMA has little flexibility, but
• TDMA has moderate flexibility. On the other hand,
• CDMA is highly flexible.
 Parabolic Reflectors

• Parabolic Reflectors are Microwave antennas.

• The frequency range used for the application of Parabolic reflector
antennas is above 1MHz.
• These antennas are widely used for radio and wireless applications.
• Principle of Operation
• The standard definition of a parabola is - Locus of a point,
• which moves in such a way that its distance from the fixed point
(called focus)
• plus its distance from a straight line (called directrix) is constant.
Parabolic Reflectors
 Parabolic Reflectors
• The point F is the focus (feed is given) and V is the vertex.
• The line joining F and V is the axis of symmetry.
• PQ are the reflected rays where L represents the line directrix on which the
reflected points lie (to say that they are being collinear).
• Hence, as per the above definition, the distance between F and L lie
constant with respect to the waves being focussed.
• The reflected wave forms a colllimated wave front, out of the parabolic
shape.
• The ratio of focal length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over D ratio”
is an important parameter of parabolic reflector.
• Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50.
 Parabolic Reflectors
• All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the
parabolic axis.
• Hence, all the waves reaching the aperture are in phase.
• As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along
the parabolic axis will be strong and concentrated.
• the parabolic reflectors help in producing high
directivity with narrower beam width.
Parabolic Reflectors
Parabolic Reflectors
 Parabolic Reflectors

• A parabolic reflector, dish, or mirror is a device

• that is used to collect or project energy such as
electromagnetic waves.
• Alter incoming plane waves traveling along the same axis
as the parabola into a wave that is spherical
• and they all meet at the focus of the reflector.
 Parabolic Reflectors

• . A dish antenna consists of one circular parabolic reflector and

• a point source situated in the focal point of this reflector.
• This point source is called “primary feed” or “feed”.
• The circular parabolic (paraboloid) reflector is constructed of
metal,
• usually, a frame covered by metal mesh at the inner side.
• The width of the slots of the metal mesh has to be less than λ/10.
• This metal covering forms the reflector acting as a mirror for the
radar energy.
 Parabolic Reflectors
• According to the laws of optics and analytical geometry, for this type of
reflector all reflected rays will be parallel to the axis of the paraboloid
• which gives us ideally one single reflected ray parallel to the main axis with
no side lobes.
• The field leaves this feed horn with a spherical wave front.
• As each part of the wave front reaches the reflecting surface,
• it is shifted 180 degrees in phase and sent outward at angles that cause all
parts of the field to travel in parallel paths.
• This is an idealized radar antenna and produces a pencil beam.
• If the reflector has an elliptical shape, then it will produce a fan beam.
 Construction & Working of a Parabolic Reflector

• If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a

signal,
• the signal from the feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn
antenna,
• to focus the wave on to the parabola.
• It means that, the waves come out of the focal point and
• strike the Paraboloidal reflector.
• This wave now gets reflected as collimated wave front, as
discussed previously, to get transmitted.
 Construction & Working of a Parabolic Reflector

• The same antenna is used as a receiver.

• When the electromagnetic wave hits the shape of the parabola,
• the wave gets reflected onto the feed point.
• The dipole or the horn antenna,
• which acts as the receiver antenna at its feed,
• receives this signal,
• to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to the receiver
circuitry.
 Parabolic Reflector Antenna

• The gain of the paraboloid is a function of aperture ratio

(D/λ).
• The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an antenna is the
multiplication of the input power fed to the antenna and its
power gain.
• Usually a wave guide horn antenna is used as a feed
radiator for the paraboloid reflector antenna.
• Along with this technique, we have another type of feed
given to the paraboloid reflector antenna, called as
Cassegrain feed.
Parabolic Reflector Antenna
 Cassegrain Feed

• Cassegrain is another type of feed given to the reflector antenna.

• In this type, the feed is located at the vertex of the paraboloid,
unlike in the parabolic reflector.
• A convex shaped reflector, which acts as a hyperboloid is placed
opposite to the feed of the antenna.
• It is also known as secondary hyperboloid reflector or sub-
reflector.
• It is placed such that its one of the foci coincides with the focus of
the paraboloid.
• Thus, the wave gets reflected twice.
 Working of a Cassegrain Antenna

• When the antenna acts as a transmitting antenna,

• the energy from the feed radiates through a horn antenna onto the hyperboloid
concave reflector,
• which again reflects back on to the parabolic reflector.
• The signal gets reflected into the space from there.
• Hence, wastage of power is controlled and the directivity gets improved.
• When the same antenna is used for reception,
• the electromagnetic waves strike the reflector,
• gets reflected on to the concave hyperboloid and from there,
• it reaches to the feed.
• A wave guide horn antenna presents there
• to receive this signal and sends to the receiver circuitry for amplification.
 Advantages

• The following are the advantages of Parabolic reflector

antenna −
• Reduction of minor lobes
• Wastage of power is reduced
• Feed can be placed in any location, according to our
convenience
• Adjustment of beam (narrowing or widening) is done by
adjusting the reflecting surfaces
 Disadvantage

• The following is the disadvantage of a Parabolic reflector antenna −

• Some of the power that gets reflected from the parabolic reflector is
obstructed.
• This becomes a problem with small dimension paraboloid.
• Applications
• The following are the applications of Parabolic reflector antenna −
• The Cassegrain feed parabolic reflector is mainly used in satellite
communications.
• Also used in wireless telecommunication systems.
 Radiation Pattern of Parabolic Reflector

• The figure shown below represents the radiation pattern of a

paraboloid:
 Radiation Pattern of Parabolic Reflector

• It is clear from the figure that the beam results in sharp major lobe with
several side lobes.
• Also, the 3D orientation of the major lobe in the axial direction looks like a
fat cigar.
•.
Advantages

• The use of parabolic reflectors reduces minor lobes.

• It offers high gain and directivity.
• The amount of power wastage is comparatively less than other
antennas.
• It provides flexibility in positioning the feed element.
• The use of parabolic reflector helps to provide easy beam
adjustment
 Disadvantages

• The size of the structure quite large.

• The overall cost of the system is high.
• The small element of paraboloid causes some amount of
power obstruction.
 Parabolic Reflector Antenna

• Applications of Parabolic Reflector

• The high directive gain offered by these antennas makes it suitable for
various applications like:
• Satellite communication
• TV signal broadcasting
• Wireless communication
• Radio astronomy
• Parabolic microphones and
• Lighting devices such as car headlights, etc.
explain various equipments used in satellite earth station
 explain various equipments used in satellite earth station
• The whole unit of the earth station is divided into two parts, one is the RF
terminal and the other is the baseband terminal.
• The RF terminal includes an antenna, up converter, downconverter, high
power amplifier, and low noise amplifier.
• While the baseband terminal includes, encoder, decoder, modulator, and
demodulator.
• However, these two parts are separated by a sufficient distance and are
connected via transmission lines.
• The RF terminal must be present close to the antenna unit to reduce the
losses and attenuation due to the transmission line
• that connects the antenna with the RF equipment.
 explain various equipments used in satellite earth station
• The fundamental operation of the earth station during
transmission is to receive the signal coming from the
terrestrial network and
• multiplex them together to link them to the satellite in
order to transmit.
• While during the reception, it must receive the signals
coming from the satellite and
• route it to the respective destination with the help of a
terrestrial network.
 explain various equipments used in satellite earth station
• Initially, the received baseband or message signal from the source is
modulated with an appropriate carrier signal then it is up converted to the
desired frequency level.
• This signal is then amplified and transmitted via antenna through feed
system.
• However, the signal coming from the satellite is received by the receiving
antenna and is provided to the feed system where required polarization is
introduced.
• Also, the feed system maintains isolation between transmitted and received
signals so as to reduce the chances of signal mixing.
• So, the signal received by the feed system is fed to a low noise amplifier then
is down-converted to the IF range and further demodulated and provided to
the terrestrial network.
 explain various equipments used in satellite earth station
• The tracking system keeps the track record of the
satellite in space and
• is controlled by drive motors and the power supply.
• The antenna unit mostly used in earth stations is
reflector antenna,
• more specifically parabolic reflector,
• due to the reason that these offer high gain and low
sidelobe characteristics.
explain various equipments used in satellite earth station

• A large earth station uses large antennas thus

can manage various telephone signals and
television channels.
• While a small earth station holds the ability to
carry only one voice or TV signals.
block diagram of digital earth station
 block diagram of digital earth station
• Transmitter
• The binary (digital) information enters at base band equipment of earth station
from terrestrial network.
• Encoder includes error correction bits in order to minimize the bit error rate.
• In satellite communication, the Intermediate Frequency (IF) can be chosen as
70 MHz by using a transponder having bandwidth of 36 MHz.
• Similarly, the IF can also be chosen as 140 MHz by using a transponder having
bandwidth of either 54 MHz or 72 MHz.
• Up converter performs the frequency conversion of modulated signal to higher
frequency.
• This signal will be amplified by using High power amplifier.
• The earth station antenna transmits this signal.
 block diagram of digital earth station
• Receiver
• During reception, the earth station antenna receives downlink signal.
• This is a low-level modulated RF signal.
• In general, the received signal will be having less signal strength.
• So, in order to amplify this signal, Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is used.
• Due to this, there is an improvement in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) value.
• RF signal can be down converted to the Intermediate Frequency (IF) value, which is either
70 or 140 MHz.
• Because, it is easy to demodulate at these intermediate frequencies.
• The function of the decoder is just opposite to that of encoder.
• So, the decoder produces an error free binary information by removing error correction
bits and correcting the bit positions if any.
• This binary information is given to base band equipment for further processing and then
delivers to terrestrial network.
 Earth Station Antenna

• The major parts of Earth station Antenna are feed system and
Antenna reflector.
• These two parts combined together radiates or receives
electromagnetic waves.
• the earth station antennas are suitable for both transmitting and
receiving electromagnetic waves.
• Parabolic reflectors are used as the main antenna in earth stations.
• The gain of these reflectors is high.
• They have the ability of focusing a parallel beam into a point at the
focus, where the feed system is located
 Tracking Subsystem

• The Tracking subsystem keeps track with the satellite and

make sure that the beam comes towards it in order to
establish the communication.
• The Tracking system present in the earth station performs
mainly two functions.
• Those are satellite acquisition and tracking of satellite.
• This tracking can be done in one of the following ways.
• Those are automatic tracking, manual tracking & program
tracking.
 explain various equipments used in
satellite earth station
• Basically, irrespective of the environment,
• satellite communication allows the data transmission and
reception
• from any part of the earth station to any other part with quality
and reliability.
• Due to these reasons, satellite communication has gained huge
popularity.
 Types of Earth Station

• The three major categories in which an earth station is divided are as follows:
• Transmit type: This type of earth station is the one that is only designed to
transmit the signals towards the satellite and has no arrangement of signal
reception.
• Receive type: The type of earth station that simply performs the function of
reception of signals coming from satellite and cannot transmit the signal to
the satellite in space is known as receive type earth station.
• Transmit-Receive type: The earth station unit that solely handles two-way
communication i.e., sends the signal to the satellite and also receives the
signal coming from the satellite is known as transmit-receive type earth
station.
 the subsystems of the earth station, in
general,

• Antenna (generally reflector type)

• Feed system for sending and receiving radio
frequency carrier
• Tracking equipment that helps to keep the satellite in
the operating region of the antenna.
 there are some factors on which the requirement of equipment at
the earth station depends.

the earth station should

maintain the required
signal quality and its
design must be cost-
effective and reliable.
DTH TECHNOLOGY
 DTH TECHNOLOGY?

• DTH Technology or (Direct To Home) Technology has acquired a key position in

TV broadcasting industry in the last decade.
• Direct-To-Home service is a digital satellite service that provides television
services direct to home with a personal dish.
• Local cable operators are not required in DTH and puts the broadcaster
directly in touch with the consumer.
• Direct to Home Technology provides better picture and sound quality.
• It also offers services like internet access, video conferencing and email.
• HDTV (High Definition TV) and 3D TV are the enhanced features of this
Technology.
• It also has options to record/rewind/pause live TV.
 Components of DTH Technology

• DTH (Direct to Home) System consists of the following components:

• Dish Antenna
• LNBF (Low Noise Block Down Converter plus Feed horn)
• Coaxial Cable
• Set Top Box
• Dish Antenna
• It is a Parabolic Reflector.
• It receives the signal and redirects it to the LNBF
• which works as receiver for signal transmitted by satellite Parabolic
Reflector.
Components of DTH Technology
 Components of DTH Technology
• LNBF (Low Noise Block Down Converter Feed horn)
• Small metal horn antenna on the Dish is called as Feed horn.
• It collects the signal from dish and
• amplifies the signal bouncing off the dish and
• filters out the noise (signals not carrying programming).
• Coaxial Cable
• It is the Cable that connects mini Dish and Set Top Box.
• DTH Set Top Box
• DTH Set Top Box, unlike the regular cable connection,
• decodes the encrypted transmission data and
• converts these signals into audio & video signal.
 Architecture of Direct To Home Technology

• The architecture of Direct to Home System includes:

• Satellite, Broadcasting Centre, Multiplexer, Modulator,
Encoder, DTH Receiver
• Satellite
• A Geo-Stationary Satellite plays an important role in Direct
To Home system.
• Satellites have a much larger “line of sight” range as they
are higher in the sky than TV antennas.
• It transmits the signals to the DTH Antenna.
 Architecture of Direct To Home Technology

• Broadcasting Centre
• The Broadcast Centre is the central hub of the system.
• The television service provider receives signals here from
various programming sources and
• then beams a broadcast signal to satellites which are in
Geostationary orbit.
• The satellites receive the signals from the broadcasting
station and rebroadcast them to the ground.
 Architecture of Direct To Home Technology

• Encryption Transmission
• After the video has been compressed, the service provider must
encrypt it to prevent it from being obtained for free.
• Encryption rearranges digital data in such a manner that it could
only be decrypted (transformed back into usable data) if the
receiver is equipped with the appropriate decoding satellite
receiver, decryption algorithm, as well as security keys.
• The broadcast center sends the signal straight to its satellites once it
has been compressed and encrypted.
• The satellite detects the signal, magnifies it, and sends it back to
Earth, where it could be received by the customer.
 Architecture of Direct To Home Technology

• Multiplexer
• Multiplexer is a device which transmits the information of
many channels in one channel.
• It is a part of the broadcasting centre.
• In the Broadcasting Centre, the Multiplexer compresses all
the frequency signals into one single channel.
• It sends the single channel to the Modulator.
• & transmits it to the Geo-Stationary satellite.
.
 Architecture of Direct To Home Technology

• Encoder
• The Encoder encrypts the signals before transmitting them
to the satellite.
• Modulator
• Modulation is a method in which an information signal is
superimposed on a strong carrier signal.
• The signals are modulated and sent to the satellite.
• The signals are then sent from the satellite to the DTH
Antenna,which then delivers them to the Set-Top Box.
 Architecture of Direct To Home Technology

• DTH Receiver
• Receiver is the end component in the entire DTH System.
• It decodes or descrambles the encrypted signal.

• For unlocking signal, it needs the proper decoder chip for that
programming package.

• The service provider can communicate with that chip

• with the help of satellite signal to make required operations
to its decoding program.
Basic Architecture of DTH Technology System
 How does Direct To Home (DTH) Technology Work
• The Satellites which are located approximately 35700 km above the Earth’s
surface transmits signals to the Broadcast stations on the Earth’s Surface.
• The Broadcast Centre receives the signals and encode it .
• The Encoder converts the data, audio and video signals into the digital format
and these signals are mixed or combined by the multiplexer .
• The Broadcast Centre send these signals to the satellite.
• Transponder on the satellite helps in establishing Communication channel
between Transmitting and Receiving Units.
• Satellite rebroadcasts the signals which are decoded to the users.
• There will be a small Dish Antenna and Set Top Box at the user end to
Receive,
• Decode and view numerous channels.
 Advantages of DTH Technology

• This structure can be used in any location, whether rural or urban.

• The high-quality audio and video are inexpensive.
• Approximately 4000 channels could be seen.
• We have access to all of the world's information from the comfort of your
own home.
• You would be able to utilize digital quality audio, video, as well as high-speed
Internet with a single DTH service.
• DTH's picture quality is far superior to that of cable operators.
• DTH gives consumers additional options in terms of how many channels they
want to watch or not.
 Advantages of DTH Technology

• DTH is more convenient in terms of portability because the same firms, such
as Dish TV, Tata Sky, Videocon D2H, Sun Direct, and others, are present all
through the nation.
• There are various firms that offer DTH services, which might benefit
customers by giving them options. If a consumer is dissatisfied with a DTH
provider, he or she can change to another provider.
 Advantages of DTH Technology

• The advantages of DTH Technology include:

• Greater service coverage.
• More channels.
• Better signal quality.
• Multiple language options.
• Pay only for the channels and services that the user wants.
• Applications such as Parental Lock, Pre-booked Pay-Per-View etc
 disadvantages of DTH Technology include

• One of the major problems for the subscribers of Direct To Home

service is unable to view any channel during heavy rains due to
weak signals.

• Changing service provider is not easy as the user has to pay

additional cost to buy new Set Top Box from new service provider
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)

• A type of satellite service that allows direct transmission of

signals from the satellites present in the geostationary orbit
to the personal dish antennas present in homes audiences is
known as Direct Broadcast Satellite.
• It is abbreviated as DBS.
• DBS is regarded as a technique of transmitting messages or
signals directly to the general public (existing as an
individual or a community) using artificial satellites orbiting
the earth.
 DBS and DTH

• Though DBS and DTH provide the same services to the

consumers,
• there are some differences in the technical specifications,
• While DBS is used for transmitting signals from satellites
at a particular frequency band (band differs in each
country) and
• DTH is used for transmitting signals over a wide range of
frequencies
• Frequency Modulation (FM) is used in DBS TV.
 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
• Direct Broadcast Television is nothing but digital TV.
• The use of satellites for the purpose of providing services directly to
homes using satellites has evolved several years ago, more
specifically,
• DBS-TV was introduced in the year 1986.
• The various broadcasting services offered by the DBS are
• audio, video and internet services.
• A direct broadcasting satellite is similar to a fixed-service satellite
(FSS);
• however, it offers a higher power output, requiring smaller antennas
to receive the signal
 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
• The frequency band of operation for the direct broadcast
television service changes according to the region of
operation.
• Generally, Ku-band (14/12 GHz) is specified for DBS services
as it is less prone to problems such as interference.
• at such high-frequency bands the chances of congestion are
quite low,
• along with that, ku-band is not utilized in terrestrial
microwave communication.
 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
• When the frequency is high then the
receiving antenna required will also be
of small length
• and due to smaller antenna size higher
value of EIRP is obtained from the
satellite.
• This resultantly reduces the overall cost
of the equipment.
• For DBS, it is said that the satellites
used for providing the service
• offers broadcast transmission in a way
that the antenna footprints are made
wide so that it can cover a sufficiently
large region.
Equivalent isotropic radiated
power,
EIRP, is the total radiated
power from a transmitter
antenna times
the numerical directivity of
the antenna in the direction
of the receiver, or
the power delivered to the
antenna times the antenna
numerical gain.
 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
• Thus, the satellite in motion in space when receives a signal from one
earth station then that respective signal can be received by various
home TV dish antennas that are present within the footprint region.
• Thus, DBS allows direct reception of signal that is coming from the
satellite.
• It is to be noted here that at the receiving end, it can be a single user
that is willing to receive or
• it can be a group of users among which the received signal is
distributed.
• DBS is known to be an active field of satellite development and
• can help in providing innovations in other fields as well such as HDTV.
 DBS – Home Receiver
• The home receiver system of a Direct Broadcast System mainly has
• 2 units namely, an outdoor unit and an indoor unit. Let us first see:
• The Outdoor Unit
• The dish antenna at the receiver first receives the downlink signal
from the satellite which is in the range from 12.2 GHz to 12.7 GHz.
• The received signal is then focused towards the receive horn.
• The receive horn directs the signal towards the polarizer that
• helps to pass the left-hand circular or right-hand circular polarized
signals by performing adequate switching.
 DBS – Home Receiver

• There is a low noise block that contains a combination of a Low Noise

Amplifier (LNA) and a downconverter.
• The LNA is the unit that is responsible for the amplification of low strength
signals.
• These are the signals that are hardly recognized by the antenna and necessary
amplification must be performed without the addition of noise.
• Now, the downconverter comes into action and down-conversion of the
signal in the range from 12.2 to 12.7 GHz
• is performed which is converted into the range 950 to 1450 MHz.
• The reason for this down conversion is that for the transmission of a signal
from the connecting cable to the indoor unit,
• these down-converted frequencies are suited properly.
 DBS – Home Receiver
• It is to be noted here that in order to gather most of the
signal
• the arrangement of the receiving antenna must be such
that
• it should exhibit an obstruction-free view from the satellite
cluster in space.
• And as there is a cluster of satellites thus, the beam width
of the antenna should be sufficiently wide
• so that it can receive from all the satellites present in the
cluster.
The Indoor Unit
 The Indoor Unit

• The tuner is the foremost block of the indoor unit which is used for selecting the
transponder.
• As we know that the down-converted frequency is in the range from 950 to 1450 MHz
• but the guard band of 24 MHz is maintained by the transponder in the selected
bandwidth.
• Thus, out of the 32 transponders, any of them must be received by the indoor unit.
• It is to be noted here that for a single polarization only a signal from 16 transponders
must be available.
• The modulation of the carrier at the centre frequency performed here is QPSK.
• Further, demodulation of the quadrature phase-shift keying modulated signal is
performed and
• it is converted into the equivalent bitstream.
• Once this is done then an error correction scheme is implemented to eliminate the errors
from the received sequence.
 The Indoor Unit

• Here demultiplexing of the received sequence is

performed
• where individual programs get separated and
• then get separated in the buffer memories so that
• further processing may take place.
• At this stage, further processing may correspond to
the
• conditional accessibility, usage history view, modem
connection, etc.
 Applications of DBS

• It helps in providing broadcast services of audio and video along

with other interactive data services.
• It helps in providing information when any rapid disaster (such as
forest fire) occurs in any remote area.
• It finds applications in fields where on-demand information is
required such as weather forecasting.
•
Global Positioning System
 GPS, or the Global Positioning System
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system using
satellites, a receiver and algorithms to synchronize location,
velocity and time data for air, sea and land travel.
• GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a global navigation
satellite system
• that provides location, velocity and time synchronization
• Nowadays GPS is everywhere.
• We can find GPS systems in cars, smartphones and watches.
• GPS helps you get where you are going, from point A to point B.
 GPS, or the Global Positioning System

• The satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites in six

Earth-centered orbital planes,
• each with four satellites, orbiting at 13,000 miles (20,000 km) above
Earth and
• traveling at a speed of 8,700 mph (14,000 km/h).
• While we only need three satellites to produce a location on earth’s
surface,
• a fourth satellite is often used to validate the information from the other
three.
• The fourth satellite also moves us into the third-dimension and
• allows us to calculate the altitude of a device.
 What are the three elements of GPS?

• GPS is made up of three different components, called

segments, that work together to provide location
information.
• The three segments of GPS are:
• Space (Satellites) — The satellites circling the Earth,
transmitting signals to users on geographical position
and time of day
 What are the three elements of GPS?

• Ground control — The Control Segment is made up of

• Earth-based monitor stations,
• master control stations and
• ground antenna.
• Control activities include tracking and operating the
satellites in space and monitoring transmissions.
• There are monitoring stations on almost every
continent in the world, including North and South
America,Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia.
 What are the three elements of GPS?

• User equipment — GPS receivers and transmitters

• including items like watches,
• smartphones and
• telematics devices.
• (A telematics system consists of devices installed
inside the fleet of vehicles. These devices use a
cellular network to send information of services
that are hosted by the provider).
 How does GPS technology work?

• GPS works through a technique called trilateration(Trilateration is

determining a position by knowing your distance from at least 3
known points. In GPS those known points are the satellites
themselves).
• Used to calculate location, velocity and elevation, trilateration
collects signals from satellites to output location information.
• Satellites orbiting the earth send signals to be read and interpreted
by a GPS device, situated on or near the earth’s surface.
• To calculate location, a GPS device must be able to read the signal
from at least four satellites.
 How does GPS technology work?

• Each satellite in the network circles the earth twice a day, and each
satellite sends a unique signal, orbital parameters and time.
• At any given moment, a GPS device can read the signals from six or
more satellites.
• A satellite broadcasts a microwave signal which is picked up by a
GPS device and used to calculate the distance from the GPS device
to the satellite.
• Since a GPS device only gives information about the distance from
a satellite,
• Satellites do not give off information about angles, so the location
of a GPS device could be anywhere on a sphere’s surface area.
 How does GPS technology work?

• When a satellite sends a signal, it creates a circle with a

radius measured from the GPS device to the satellite.
• When we add a second satellite, it creates a second circle,
and the location is narrowed down to one of two points
where the circles intersect.
• With a third satellite, the device’s location can finally be
determined, as the device is at the intersection of all three
circles.
• we live in a three-dimensional world, which means that
each satellite produces a sphere, not a circle.
 How does GPS technology work?

• As a device moves, the radius (distance to the satellite)

changes.
• When the radius changes, new spheres are produced,
• giving us a new position.
• We can use that data, combined with the time from the
satellite, to determine velocity,
• calculate the distance to our destination and the
ETA(Estimated Time of Arrival)
 What are the uses of GPS?

• GPS is a powerful and dependable tool for businesses and

• organizations in many different industries.
• Surveyors, scientists, pilots, boat captains, first responders and
workers in mining and agriculture,
• are just some of the people who use GPS on a daily basis for work.
• They use GPS information for preparing accurate surveys and
maps,
• taking precise time measurements, tracking position or location,
• and for navigation.
• GPS works at all times and in almost all weather conditions.
 There are five main uses of GPS:

• — Determining a position.
• Navigation — Getting from one location to
another.
• Tracking — Monitoring object or personal
movement.
• Mapping — Creating maps of the world.
• Timing — Making it possible to take precise time
measurements.
 uses of GPS:

• Emergency Response:
• During an emergency or natural disaster, first
responders use GPS for mapping,
• following and predicting weather, and keeping track of
emergency personnel.
• Health and fitness: Smartwatches and wearable
technology can track fitness activity (such as running
distance) and benchmark it against a similar
demographic.
 uses of GPS:

• Construction, mining and off-road tracking

• Transportation: Logistics companies implement telematics
systems to improve driver productivity and safety.
• A truck tracker can be used to support route optimization,
fuel efficiency, driver safety and compliance.
• Other industries where GPS is used include: agriculture,
autonomous vehicles, sales and services,
• the military, mobile communications, security, and fishing.
Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
 What is GIS?

• GIS is an acronym for “Geographic Information System.”

• A GIS system uses computers and software to gather, manage and
analyze data based on geography, and visualizes the data on a map.
• GIS mapping software uses spatial data to create maps and 3D
models out of layers of visual information, revealing patterns and
relationships in the GIS data.
• Many industries and government data analytics agencies use GIS to
better communicate complex information and solve problems
associated with geographic locations.
 Geographic Information Systems, or GIS,
• Geographic Information Systems, or GIS, are computer and
software tools for gathering and analyzing data connected to
geographic locations and their relation to human or natural activity
on Earth.
• GIS data can be used to gather and analyze data about the surface
of the earth,and to create layered maps, charts and 3D models of
geographical features
• including mountains, rivers, forests, streets or buildings.
• Industries and governments use GIS tools to better understand
everything from urban planning to climate change.
 How GIS Works

• GIS systems generally consist of the following elements:

• Maps — Shareable maps that contain geographic data layers.
• Data — Spreadsheets, tables and imagery with a geographic component that
ties data to a particular location.
• Analysis — Spatial analysis enhances decision-making process
• by providing insights that give users more confidence when interpreting and
predicting situations.
• Apps — GIS is no longer tied to a desktop. Mobile apps allow GIS data to be
used anywhere, at any time.
• While each application is different, Geographic Information Systems are
broadly similar in the way they work.
• All GIS tools analyze and visualize spatial data, which includes location
information like address, latitude or longitude.
 How GIS Works

• Geographic Information Systems generally perform

these tasks in three steps:
• Visualize data — Geographic data is displayed in GIS
software.
• Combine data — Layers of data are combined to
form maps.
• Query data — Geographic queries search for values
in layered data.
 Types of Geographic Information Systems

• The types of data in Geographic Information Systems, or GIS,

include:
• Numeric data — Statistical data collected with a geographic
component and displayed as a layer on a map.
• Vector data — Consisting of X and Y coordinates, vector data can
describe points, lines or polygons connected to a geographic space.
Vector formats are best for data with strict borders, like a street or
political district.
• Raster data — Typically digital images in JPEG, TIF or GIF format,
raster data is formed from grids of cells or pixels. Satellite imagery
is a good example of raster data.
 What is GIS?

• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) store, analyze,

and visualize data for geographic positions on Earth’s
surface.
• GIS stands for Geographic Information Systems and is
a computer-based tool that examines spatial
relationships, patterns, and trends in geography.
 What is GIS Mapping?

• The 4 main ideas of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

are:
• Create geographic data.
• Manage it in a database.
• Analyze and find patterns.
• Display it on a map.
• Because viewing and analyzing data on maps impacts our
understanding of data, we can make better decisions using
GIS.
 What are the Uses of GIS?

• we use GIS for:

• Pinpointing new store locations
• Reporting power outages
• Analyzing crime patterns
• Routing in car navigation
• Forecasting and predicting weather
 What are the Uses of GIS?

• Locations Map
• That’s because maps make geographic information easier to
understand.
• When you have geographic context, you don’t only see where they
are on a map. But you can:
• Calculate how far points are from each other
• Check if points are clustered for patterns and trends
• Find the optimal route between cities
 Components of Geographic Information Systems

• The 3 main components of Geographic Information Systems are:

• 1. Data
• GIS stores location data as thematic layers. Each data set has an attribute
table that stores information about the feature. The two main types of GIS
data are raster and vector:
• Raster
• Raster data look like grids because they store data in rows and columns.
They can be discrete or continuous. For example, we often represent land
cover, temperature data, and imagery as raster data.
• Vector
• Vectors are points, lines, and polygons with vertices. For example, fire
hydrants, contours, and administrative boundaries are often vectors
 Components of Geographic Information Systems

• .2. Hardware
• Hardware runs GIS software. It could be anything from powerful servers,
mobile phones, or a personal GIS workstation. The CPU is your workhorse
and data processing is the name of the game. Dual monitors, extra storage,
and crisp graphic processing cards are must-haves too in GIS.
• 3. Software
• ArcGIS and QGIS are the leaders in GIS software. GIS software specializes in
spatial analysis by using math in maps. It blends geography with modern
technology to measure, quantify and understand our world.
 Components of Geographic Information Systems

• GIS can be used as tool in both problem solving and decision making
processes, as well as for visualization of data in a spatial environment.
• Geospatial data can be analyzed to determine
• (1) the location of features and relationships to other features,
• (2) where the most and/or least of some feature exists,
• (3) the density of features in a given space,
• (4) what is happening inside an area of interest (AOI),
• (5) what is happening nearby some feature or phenomenon, and
• (6) and how a specific area has changed over time (and in what way).
Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
 GIS

• Geography is the study of Earth’s features and patterns of their variations in

spatial location and time.
• Many questions of agricultural production are geographic in nature as the
production depends on the environment and prevailing socio economic
conditions, both of which vary spatially and in time.
• Natural ressources management and précision agriculture,requires access to
large volumes of multidimensional geographical (spatial) information of
weather, soils, topography, water resources, socio economic status, etc.
• The data from several sources need to be integrated in a consistent form.
• Geographical Information Systems or GIS enable representation and
integration of such spatial information from several sources .
 Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
• GIS is a generic term implying the use of computers to create and
display digital maps.
• GIS allows mapping, modelling, querying, analyzing and displaying
large quantities of such diverse data, all held together within a
single database.
• A GIS produces maps and reads maps.
• Its major advantage is that it permits identifying spatial
relationships between specific different map features.
• It can create maps in different scales, projections and colours
 Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
• It is primarily an analytical tool that provides new ways of looking at, linking
and analyzing data by projecting tabular data into maps and integrating data
from different, diverse sources.
• This it does by allowing creation of a set of maps, each with a different
theme (soils, rainfall, temperature, relief, water sources, etc.).
• GIS can lead to better management decisions are:
• precision farming, land use planning, watershed management, pest and
disease management, irrigation management, resources inventory and
mapping, crop area assessment and yield forecasting, biodiversity
assessment, genetic resources management, etc.
 Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
• GIS is defined as an organized collection of
• computer hardware,
• software,
• geographic data and
• personnel designed to efficiently
• capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and
display geographically referenced information.
 WHAT A GIS CAN DO

• WHAT A GIS CAN DO

• What exists at a particular location? Given a geographic reference for a location, the GIS
must describe the features of that location
• Where can specific features be found? This is the converse of the first question. For
example, where are the districts with rainfall greater than 500 mm and less than less than
750 mm?
• Trends or What has changed over time? This involves answering both questions above. For
• example, at what locations are the crop yields showing declining trends?
• What spatial patterns exist? if occurrence of a pest is associated with a hypothesized set of
• conditions of temperature, precipitation, humidity,
• where do those conditions exist?
• what would be the nitrate distribution in groundwater over the area if fertilizer use is
• doubled?
 CREATING A GIS

• Like for any other Information System , creating a GIS involves 4 stages:
• (i) Data input
• (ii) Data Storage
• (iii) Data Analysis and modelling, and
• (iv) Data Output and presentation
• for a GIS the data inputs are of two
• types:
• (i) Spatial data (latitude/longitude for georeferencing,the features on a map, eg soil
• units, administrative districts), and
• (ii) Attribute data (descriptive data about the features, eg soil properties,
population of districts, etc.
CREATING A GIS
 CREATING A GIS
• Spatial data sources for creating a GIS are analogue maps (soil map, land
use map, administrative districts, map, agro ecological zone map, etc.) or
and satellite imageries.
• Data input is the process of encoding analogue data in the form of maps,
• imageries or photographs into computer readable digitized form and
writing data into the GIS database.
 GIS Data Input

• Spatial Data capture (representing locations in a database) can be in two basic

formats:
• (i) Vector format
• (ii) Raster format
• In the Vector format reality is represented as points lines and areas and
• in the raster format reality is represented as grid of cells/pixels.
• The Vector format is based on discrete objects view of reality (analogue maps)
and
• the raster format is based on continuous fields view of reality (photographs,
imageries, etc.
• In principle, any real world situation can be represented in digital form in both
raster and vector formats.
GIS Data Input
 Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
• A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping
and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth.
• GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps .
• a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and
displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified
according to their locations.
• GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained
personnel linking topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other
resource data .
Geographic Information Systems, or GIS
 STEPS IN BUILDING A GIS

• The way in which a GIS is built will depend on the way information will be
used in the decision-making process.
• Building a GIS proceeds through at least 4 stages:
• (i) Defining the objectives
• (ii) Building the spatial and attribute data bases
• (iii) Database management for geographic analysis
• (iv) Presenting results in the form of maps, etc.
 STEPS IN BUILDING A GIS
• The definition of objectives or the problem to be solved using GIS is critical to
the choice of spatial and attribute databases.
• Once the problem is defined and the relevant map layers and attribute data
are identified, building databases involves:
• (i) database design
• (ii) entering spatial data
• (iii) creating topology
• (iv) entering attribute data
•
 STEPS IN BUILDING A GIS

• Designing the database requires identifying:

• (i) study area boundaries
• (ii) coordinate system
• (iii) data layers
• (iv) features in each layer
• (v) attributes for each feature type
• (vi) coding and organizing attributes
 STEPS IN BUILDING A GIS

• Depending on whether the map sources are two dimensional maps of the area or
• remote sensing imageries, data is entered in vector or raster format.
• In the vector format, entering spatial data and creating topology are components
of overall digitization process.
• Raster data will need to be vectorized before topologies can be built.
• Attribute data is created in the form of database files with one field, the feature
identification field, in common with the spatial data base created during the spatial
data entry process.
• Data base management refers to translating the digitized map into real world
• coordinates, identifying coverages for analysis and maintaining the data base.
• Presenting the maps for decision-making is facilitated by creating customized maps
• using the various facilities available in GIS software.