Advanced Research Methods

Jimma University
Department of GeES
Course: Advanced Research
Methods Academic Year: 2022/23
Semester: II
Target group: Regular GIS & RS, and LRAM PG
students

By
Girma Alemu (PhD)
Email: girmaalemu83@gmail.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5783-870X
Course Outline

The course consists of the ff units/main

topics:
 Concepts and Definition of Research,
 Research Methodology and Methods
 Classification of Research
 Research Process & Proposal Development
 Process in Conducting Research
 Writing Research Reports
 Concepts and Definition of Research
• Under this main topic we will see:
 Definition of research
 Purposes and goals of scientific research
 Research methodology and methods
What is Scientific Research?
Scientific research is the systematic, objective,
empirical and controlled process of gathering,
recording and analyzing data/information for
aid in making scientific and critical decision or
discovery of new knowledge.
 cont’d
• This definition suggests six important points.
 Research is Systematic:
• Implies that it employs and follows:
• planned and scientific methods and
procedures to address research endeavors.
 Research is objective:
-Implies that the information or data:
• generated/collected, analyzed and reported
should be correct and objective.
• It should avoid subjectivity, preconceived
ideas, information or opinions.
 cont’d
 Research is empirical:
• It implies that research tests:
• beliefs, ideas, assumptions, or hypothesis
and conclude on the bases of tested results.
 Research is controlled:
• Implies that the researcher can have confidence
in his/her research outcomes.
Research is to facilitate scientific decision-making
process or discovery of new knowledge :
• Implies generating results, prediction or
conclusion for decision or creation of
new knowledge.
 cont’d
 Research is critical
• Implies that many truths are tentative and
are subject to change as a result of
subsequent research.

We can also define it by considering the ff

points
• Research begins with a question that the researcher
is trying to answer
• Research inculcates scientific reasoning and
promotes the development of logical habits
of thinking
 cont’d
• Hence, the term research can be broadly defined
as the scientific and systematic search or inquiry
for pertinent information or knowledge.
• It is a movement from the known to the unknown
and is a deliberate response to a need for
information in order to solve a given problem.
• It is an original contribution to the existing stock
of knowledge.
 Characteristics and Goals of Research

 Characteristics of scientific research

• What do you think are the characteristics
of scientific research?
 The research activity comprises of
the following activities:
 the defining and redefining of the
problem,
the formulation of hypotheses or
suggested solutions,
the collection, organization and evaluation of data
or facts,
 cont’d
 Research requires a specific plan or procedure
 We need to know if the question is answerable and how.
 We need to know whether the research project is feasible in
terms of time and money
 Research usually divides a problem into more manageable
sub-problems
 What is the current state of the Ethiopian economy?” is
vague by itself
 We could divide the economy into sectors
 by occupation: Agriculture, Household, etc. by
industry
 cont’d
 Research makes certain critical assumptions
If you do not make assumptions, you cannot
make logical conclusions
 Research is, by its nature, cyclical
Every research project brings answers but also
new questions
 Those questions, in turn, bring new research
projects
 cont’d
• In general we can summarize the main
characteristics of scientific research as follows:
• is directed toward the solution of a problem;
• is based upon observable experience or
empirical evidences;
• demands accurate observation and description;
• involves gathering of new data from primary or
first-hand sources or using existing data for a
new purpose;
• follows carefully designed procedures and
always applying rigorous analysis;
 Cont’d
• requires expertise;
• requires patient and unhurried activity;
• is carefully recorded and reported;
• sometimes requires courage;
• emphasizes on the development of:
• generalizations,
• principles,
• theories that will be helpful in predicting
future occurrences; and
• Strives to be objective and logical.
  Purpose of Scientific Research

• What are the general goals of scientific

research?
The purpose of research is to discover new ideas
or solutions through the application of scientific
procedures.
And also to test current theories and develop
new ones:
 Is the current theory consistent with the world?
 Can we develop a new theory that is
more consistent with the world?
 cont’d
 Research has a clearly articulated goal
Examples:
 Test a current theory
 Add details to a theory
 Replace a theory with a better one
 Write a new theory where none existed, etc.
 In general the purpose of research may be either
of the following:
 Exploration
 Description
 Explanation
 cont’d
 The major factors to be considered before
embarking on research include:
 Type and nature of information sought
 Timing
 Availability of resources
 Cost/benefit analysis
 Ethical considerations
 cont’d
• The research involves the following series of steps
or
procedures:
 Identification of the problem to be investigated
 Collection of essential facts to prove or disprove
the theory
 Selection (hypothesizing) of tentative solutions to
the problem
 Evaluation of these alternative solutions to
determine which of them is in accordance with all
the facts, and
 The final selection of the most likely solution.
 cont’d
 Each research problem involves gathering of data
to confirm or refute an existing theory
 We are not supposed to let our prior beliefs
influence our conclusions
 Because of this, we formulate our hypothesis before
we gather the data
 We don't let the data alter our hypothesis so we
know we will confirm it.
 Any truly scientific theory must be refutable
otherwise, it is just dogma.
 A sound theory is the one that has withstood
many attempts to disprove it
 cont’d
 Three useful guiding principles need to
be considered:
a) Use of empirical evidence and ethical
neutrality
 The scientific method is based on empirical
evidence (experimental, observed, practical) and
utilizes relevant concepts
 The goal of Scientific research is to facilitate
independent verification of scientific
observation through the use of empirical
evidence.
 It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e., it aims at
nothing but making only adequate and
 cont’d
 Logical reasoning (Critical thinking)
 Logical reasoning?
Think about it and give examples

 The research practices logical reasoning

which allows determination of the truth
through steps different from emotional and
hopeful thinking
 Its methodology is made known to all
concerned for
critical scrutiny and for use in testing the
 cont’d
 Logic is not an ability that humans are born with but
rather it is a skill that must be learned within a
formal educational environment.
 Possessing a Skeptical Attitude
 The final key idea is skepticism.
 the constant questioning of your beliefs
and conclusions
 It requires the possession of skeptical
attitudes
 Scientific attitude (SA) implies skeptical
attitude
 A skeptic holds beliefs tentatively, and is open
 cont’d
• In general we can summarize the general goals
of research as to:
• Seeking solution to practical or theoretical
problem at hand,
• Discovering new knowledge,
• expanding the frontiers of existing knowledge
in all areas of disciples.
• ultimately improving the way we live
• clarifies a problem,
• evaluates a program,
• defines an opportunity,
• introduce innovative technology & its
application in the areas of development
 Cont’d
• Seeking solution to a practical or theoretical
problem at hand involves doing the following
purpose/objectives/tasks:
• Describing phenomena
• Explaining phenomena
• Predicting phenomena
• Intervention/Controlling phenomena
• Comparing phenomena
 Group
Activity
• Problem at hand that requires solutions
• Females’ political participation in parliament representation
in Ethiopian government.
• Describe the phenomena
• Explain the phenomena
• Predicate the phenomena
• Intervene/control the phenomena
• Compare the phenomena
 Describing Phenomena
• It gives pictorial account about the subject to be studied;
• It is the first step since it gives information for further
exploration about the phenomena under
consideration
• In description, the researcher attempts to answer questions
of: What, who, or where?
• In our case the researcher collects data about women’s
participation in politics and reports their level of
participation based on the data collected,
• the data may reveal that women’s participation in politics is
low
• then we can say females participation in politics has been
described.
 Explaining Phenomena
• In explanation researcher is interested in
exploring the reason or causes of certain behavior
or event
• Attempt is made to answer the question “why”?
• For example: Why females fail to actively
participate in politics?
 Prediction
• In research, generalization is made not only to
explain for the past but also to predict what
will happen in the future.
• conceptual framework or theory will be used to
make prediction about the variable of interest.
• For example: Females’ empowerment strategy
can be suggested to improve females’ political
involvement.
 Control/Intervention
• Description, explanation and prediction of what is
happening are to explore and allow possibilities of
intervention or controlling and subsequently
observe an expected result.
• For example: If low level of education has been
identified as a cause for low level of political
participation of females, the researcher will
suggest introduction of intervention package to
bring about the desired change.
 Comparing
• The result obtained with intervention will
be compared with the condition without.
• For example, compare females’ political
participation between those with empowerment
intervention and without.
 Research Methodology and Methods
What is the difference between research
methodology and research methods?
• In order to have a clear understanding of the term
research it is important to know the meaning of
the scientific method.
 It is the research methodology adopted in the
process of research that makes a given
research scientific.
 Thus, research methods have become central
parts of almost all kinds of investigations (e.g.
natural science/social science).
 Cont’d
• Research methods and methodologies are
usually used synonymously.
• However, you need to know that these
concepts convey different meanings.
• A method is:
• a particular technique to collect data/
information,
• a specific tool to collect data
• For example:
• Surveys, experimentation, interview, group
discussion, etc. are methods but not
methodologies.
 Cont’d
• Methodology describes:
• the principles and procedures in a particular field of
study;
• how we design and implement research studies;
• and may include:
• Description of sources of data,
• Identification of data requirement,
• How to collect the required data,
• Techniques of selection of sources of data,
• Instruments of data collection,
• Methods of data collection,
• Methods of data analysis and presentation, etc.,
• Thus, methodology encompasses the entire approach to
research.
  Classification of Research
• There are different ways of classifying
research.
• It can be classified based on:
 Goal of research
 Objectives of research
 Approaches and methods of research
 The type of data used in research
 Fields of study/research environment
 Time dimension
Research types Based on The Goal of Research

• The nature of the problem that the research

attempts to solve could be
• Theoretical - building a theory or
• Practical - solving immediate practical problems.
• These two types of problems that the research tries
to solve leads to two broad classifications of
research:

 Basic research and Applied research

Research types Based on Objectives
• The purpose or objectives of research may be:
• to describe the behavior or
characteristics of events,
• explaining causal link between two
variables, or
• comparing two or more groups on the basis of
a particular phenomenon.
• Hence, according to the specific objectives,
research can be classified as:
 Descriptive
 Explanatory, and Comparative research
 Research Based on the Nature of the Data
• You may have:
• qualitative,
• quantitative or
• both data inputs for your research.
• Thus you may classify your research
accordingly

 Quantitative and Quantitative

 Research Based on Designs
• When we consider the design of data
collection approach, we may have
• experimental
• quasi-experimental
• non-experimental
Research by fields of study
• Research can be classified by
field of study as:
• social science research,
• educational research,
• behavioral science
research
 Group discussion
• What is the difference between natural
science research and social science research?
• Describe the difference between descriptive
and explanatory research.
• How do you choose a particular type of
research?
 Basic Vs. Applied research
 Basic Research
• Also called:
• Fundamental research or
• Pure research
• It is basically concerned with the:
• Formulation of a theory or principles,
• Creation of new knowledge,
• Expansion the boundaries of existing
knowledge
• Verification of the acceptability of a given theory
 Cont’d
• Adds new knowledge to an organized body
of scientific knowledge
• does not necessarily produce results of
immediate practical value
• Thus the general aims of basic research are:
• Obtaining and using empirical data to
formulate, expand or evaluate theory, and
• Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake
of knowledge
 Cont’d
• For the attainments of these aims/objectives, basic research
performs the following:
• Discovery
• Invention
• Reflection
• Discovery: where a totally new idea or explanation emerges
from empirical research which may revolutionize thinking on
that particular topic.
• Invention : where a new technique or method is crated.
• Reflection : where an existing theory, technique or group of
ideas is re-examined possibly in a different organizational or
social context.
• Note that basic research lays down the foundation for the
applied research that follows.
 Applied research
• Conducted in relation to a particular problem to
give answer to questions at hand;
• Yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of
local applicability and not in terms of universal
validity;
• makes decisions about a particular course of
action or policy;
• Tests theories often generated by basic research, and
applying them to real situations.
• Employs methodology that is not as rigorous as
that of basic research
 Cont’d
• Distinction Between Basic and Applied Research
• Traditionally, basic and applied researches were
seen as activities of:
• different nature,
• carried out by different institutions, and
• financed from different sources
• It is, however, difficult to draw a clear boundary
between these two types of research.
• Researchers believe that basic and applied types
of research should not be thought of as two
mutually exclusive categories;
 Cont’d
• Even thinking of basic and applied as representing
ends of a continuum is an oversimplification
because research often yields results that have both
theoretical and practical implications;
• Both basic and applied research follow
scientific methodology to answer the question
at hand.
• The distinction between them is rather a matter
of emphasis than as representing a true
dichotomy,
• Some researchers prefer to focus on basic or
applied type
Explorative, Descriptive and
Explanatory Research
 Exploratory Research
• Conducted when the problem at hand has not
been clearly defined.
• Thus explorative research is initial
research conducted to:
• gain background information,
• better understand, and
• clarify a problem.
• In general explorative research conducted :
• to Diagnosing a situation;
• to screening alternatives;
 Cont’d
• to discover new ideas;
• to determine the best research design;
• to develop hypotheses;
• to develop questions to be answered;
• to understand how to measure a variable;
• to determine data collection method; and
• to determine selection of subjects.
• Exploratory research is conducted on the
assumption that there will be a formal research
later.
• The results of exploratory research are not usually
useful for decision-making by themselves, but they
 Cont’d
Categories of Exploratory Research
• The most important categories of
exploratory research include:
• Secondary data analysis
• Case study
• Pilot study/survey
 Descriptive Research
• The goal of descriptive research is to describe
the status of some aspects of a phenomenon
• It can help understand a topic and lead to
causal analysis.
• Descriptive research, therefore, involves a variety
of research methods to achieve its goal.
• The methods that come under descriptive
research are:
• Historical studies
• Survey studies
• Correlation studies
• Observation studies and Case studies
 Historical Studies
• It is usually a qualitative research.
• it is past oriented.
• It involves studying, understanding and
interpreting past events.
• But note that it is more than collecting and
compiling data and requires interpretation of
data/information.
• Data sources may include Primary and
Secondary sources.
 Cont’d
• Purpose of historical study is:
• to reconstruct the past facts systematically and
objectively by collecting, evaluating, verifying
and synthesizing evidence to establish facts and
reach on defensible conclusions, often in
relation to particular problem.

Survey Study
It is a method of gathering data at a particular
time for a specific objective;
• It is characterized by:
 Cont’d
• gathering data on a one-shot basis and hence
is economical and efficient,
• can represent a wide range of target
population,
• generates numerical data,
• Provides:
• descriptive,
• explanatory and inferential data;
- manipulates key factors and variables to
derive frequencies
• Surveys can be distinguished as:
• cross-sectional studies, and
 Discussion

In what situation is survey more

appropriate?
 Cont’d
• Cross-sectional study:
• It is a study in which various segments of
a population are sampled at a single point
in time, but for the same problem.
• Measuring the nature and rate of changes of a
population by drawing representative
samples that have:
• different stage of development,
• age or
• experience.
 Cont’d
• Longitudinal study focuses on
• direct measurement or survey of:
• data,
• information or
• respondents at different point in time.
• It is further divided into:
• Trend study, and
• Panel/cohort study.
 Cont’d
• Trend studies. Such studies are designed to establish
patterns of changes at different points of time in
order to:
• predict future patterns or conditions,
• extrapolate (backward or forward), or
• interpolate missing patterns or data
between observed patterns.
 Cont’d
• Panel/Cohort Study
• It is a longitudinal study that involves collection
of data from the same sample of individuals
over time:
• The purpose can be:
• To evaluate impacts of intervention,
• To evaluate projects for action,
• For prediction.
 Correlational Studies
• Studies designed to investigate whether or not a
relationship exists between two or more
quantified variables.
• for example, study
• whether an association exists between the
number of years spent in full-time teaching and
subsequent annual income.
 Cont’d
• The purpose of correlational studies is:
• not to establish cause-effect relationship
among variables
• but to determine whether the variables under
study have some kind of association or not.
• Variables being studied may have:
• positive relationship,
• negative relationship, or
• no relationship at all.
 Cont’d
• Correlational relations with positive or
negative relations can be expressed in terms of
various relational representation:
• Linear, or
• Non-linear
• Exponential,
• Logarithmic,
• Power,
• Polynomial, etc.
 Discussion

• How should the correlational relations with

positive or negative relations can be presented?
• Give examples of variables that are:
• positively,
• negatively related,
• are unrelated.
 Observation Studies
• Involve observing and recording of behavior or trait or
attribute as it occurs in its natural settings.
• observation studies have the following important
features:
• First: noninterference.
• Second: observation and detection of change or
variation.
• Third: particularly useful when we know little or
nothing about a certain subject.
• Finally: can provide somewhat detailed description of
a phenomenon, however, it cannot tell us why the
phenomenon occurred.
 Case Studies
• Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis
of a limited number of events or conditions and
their relationships.
• They are largely descriptive examinations, usually
of a small number of sites, for example:
• small town,
• hospital,
• school.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
 Quantitative research
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantitative figure or quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
 Most often we are testing a hypothesis
We collect data and see whether the hypothesis is
consistent with the data

 Methodology is simpler than qualitative research

 But it often takes longer- identifying, collecting, and
analyzing appropriate data is difficult and expensive.
 Cont’d
This approach can be further subdivided into:
 inferential,
 experimental and
 simulation approaches.

 The purpose of the inferential approach is to form a

database from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of populations.

A survey population where a sample population is

studied to determine its characteristics and it is then
inferred that the population has the characteristics.
 Cont’d
• Experimental approach is characterized by much
greater control over the research environment.
Some or all the variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables.

 Simulation approach involves the construction of

artificial environment (e.g green house) within which
relevant information and data can be generated.

This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior

of a system under controlled conditions.
Given values of initial conditions, parameters and
exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behavior of the process over time
 Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions, and behavior.
 Qualitative Research is a function of researchers’
insights and impressions.
 It generates results, which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.
 Generally group interviews, projective techniques and
in-depth interviews are used.
 Qualitative research is particularly important in the
behavioral sciences.
 Cont’d
• BUT, these days, most research activities are becoming
essentially pluralistic:
 researchers often combine quantitative and
qualitative research methods within the same study.

Mixed-method research strategies are particularly

effective in policy-oriented research and the contribution
that qualitative research can make to policy evaluation
is increasingly being recognized.
Some other types of research:
 Research:
 can be one time (cross-sectional) or longitudinal
research,
 can be field-based or laboratory- based or
simulation research,
 can also be clinical or diagnostic research,
 can be conclusion oriented or decision
oriented,etc.
 Cont’d
• Quantitative research may be divided into two
groups in terms of the time dimension:
 A single point in time (cross sectional)
 Multiple points research (longitudinal
research)

 Cross–sectional research takes a snapshot

approach.
 This is the simplest and less costly research
approach.
Limitation – it cannot capture social processes or
changes.
 Cont’d
• Longitudinal research examines features of people or
other units more than one time.
 It is usually more complex and costly than cross
sectional research but is also more powerful especially
with respect to social changes.

 Types of Longitudinal Research:

Time series research – study on a group of people or
other units across multiple periods (e.g. time series data
on exports of coffee, lulcc using series of RS images).

The panel study – the researcher observes exactly

the same people group or organization across time
periods, each time using the snapshot approach.
 Cont’d
• In panel study the focus is on individuals or
households.
Example: interviewing the same people in 1991, 1993,
1995, etc, and observing the change is an example
of panel data set.

A cohort Analysis – is similar to the panel study, but

rather than observing exactly the same people, a
category of people who share similar life experience in a
specified period is studied.

Hence the focus is on group of individuals not on

specific individuals or households.
Reading assignment: Experimental research

• What is the difference between control

and experimental groups?
Research Process & Developing the
Research Proposal
 The research process
Question

O/P (Thesis, pub, ...)

What is known ?
New knowledge

n
Introductio
Discussio

Conclusio
Results
Formulate problem
Interpretation, n

n
conclusion Materials and Hypothesis
Methods

Analyse, Results Project plan

Experiment
Collect data

75
 Introduction

 Most research activities follow the

following steps:
 Selecting a topic
 Formulating the research problem and research
questions
 Extensive literature survey/review
 Formulating the working hypothesis
 Preparing the research design and determining the
sample design
 Collecting and analyzing the data
 Generalizations and interpretations of results
 Preparing the report and presentation of the results
(formal write up of conclusions reached)
76
 1. Identification of a Research Topic

 To do a research, a topic or a research problem

must be identified.
What is a Research problem?
 A research problem refers to some difficulty,
which a researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for it.
 A research topic should seek to advance the state
of science.
 It usually starts with a felt practical or theoretical
difficulty. 77
 Cont’d

 RT should ask a question to which the answer is not known.

 RT should ask an interesting question.
 RT should be as objective as possible (based in fact, in things
quantifiable and measurable).
Some Potential Sources of a Research Topic
 A topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant
springs from its own seed.
 The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a shortlist of
possible topics that have emerged from your reading or
from your own experience that look interesting.
• A general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter
(agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may have to be
identified at first. 78
 Cont’d

 Some Potential Sources of a Research Topic

 A topic must spring from the

researcher’s
mind.
 The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a
shortlist of possible topics that have emerged
from your reading or from your own experience
that look interesting.
A general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may
have to be identified at first.
79
 Cont’d

 Some important sources, which may be helpful

to select a research problem:

 Professional Experience:
 Ownprofessional experience is the
most important source of a research
problem,
 Contacts and discussions with research-
oriented people,
 Attending conferences, seminars, and
 Listening to learned speakers
80
 Cont’d

 Inferences from theory and professional literature:

 Research problems can also emanate from inferences

that can be drawn from theories or from empirical
literature.

 Two types of literature can be reviewed.

 The conceptual literature
 The empirical literature

 Research reports, bibliographies of books, and articles,

periodicals, research abstracts and research guides
suggest areas that need research.
81
 Cont’d

 Technological and Social Changes:

 New developments bring new development
forth challenges for research.

 New innovations and changes need to be carefully

evaluated through the research process.

 In general, the most fundamental rule of good research

topic is to investigate questions that sincerely interest
you.
 i.e. a research which a researcher honestly enjoys even if
he/she encounters problems frustrating or discouraging.
82
 Cont’d

 The following points are important in selecting a

research problem:
 Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided since it will
be difficult to throw any new light in such cases for the
average researcher.
 Controversial subjects should not become the choice of the
average researcher.
 Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should be
avoided.
 The importance of the subject in terms of:
 The qualification and training of researcher,
 The cost involved and the time factor, etc.
83
 Cont’d

 In general, the choice of a research topic is not made

in a vacuum and is influenced by several factors:
 Interest and values of the researcher,

 Current debate in the academic world,

 Funding,

 The value and power of the subject, etc.

84
 2. Definition and Statement of the Problem

 After a topic has been selected the next task is

to define it clearly.
 To define a problem means to put a fence around it.
 It involves the task of laying down the boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the problem.
 The researcher must be certain that he/she knows
exactly what his/her problem is before he/she begins
work on it.
 A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved.
85
 Cont’d

 Defining the problem unambiguously will help to find

answers to questions like:
 What data are to be collected?
 What characteristics of data are relevant and need
to be studied?
 What relations are to be explored?
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose?

 Hence, in the formal definition of the problem

the researcher is required:
 To describe the background of the study, its theoretical basis
and underlying assumptions in concrete, specific and
workable questions.
86
 Cont’d

 Useful steps in defining the research problem:

a) Statement of the problem in a general way
 Problem should be stated in a broad and general way
keeping in mind either some practical concern or some
scientific or intellectual interest.
b) Understanding the nature of the problem more clearly
 The next steps is to understand its origin and nature
clearly.
 The best way to understand the problem is to discuss it
with other more acquainted or experienced people.

87
 Cont’d

c) Survey of the available literature:

 The researcher must devote sufficient time in reviewing both
the conceptual and empirical literatures:
 Researches already undertaken on related topics or problems
need to be systematically reviewed.
 This exercise enables the researcher to:
 find out what data are available
 find out if there are gaps in theories, and
 find out whether the existing theory is applicable to the
problem under study.
 find out what other researchers have to say about the
topic,
 ensure that no one else has already exhausted the questions
that you aim to examine, etc. 88
 Cont’d

d) Developing the idea through discussion:

 Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful
information.
 The discussion sharpens the researcher’s focus of
attentions on specific aspects of the study.
e) Rephrasing the research problem:
 The researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem
into a working proposition.
 Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research
problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationally viable and may help in the
development of a working hypothesis.
89
 Cont’d

f) In addition:
 Technical terms or phrases, with special meanings
used in the statement of the problem should be
clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates relating to the
research problem should be clearly stated.
 The suitability of the time period and the sources
of data available must be considered in
defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned
explicitly in defining a research problem.
90
 3. Extensive Literature Survey

 Once the problem is formulated, the researcher

should undertake an extensive literature survey
connected with the problem:

 Academic conference proceedings,

government reports, policy
journals, dissertations,
publications of reports,
international organizations, books, etc.
must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem.

 Usually one source leads to the next and the

best place for the survey is the library.
91
 Cont’d

 Main goals of literature review:

 To familiarize oneself with the issue and
establish credibility.
 To show the path of prior research and how current
project is linked to it.
 To integrate and summarize what is known
in the
area
 To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.

92
 Cont’d

 From the of the literature, you will know

survey
whether your question has been answered
elsewhere.
not
 You will also know what other people have said about
similar topics.
 You can learn how other people faced methodological
and theoretical issues similar to your own.
 You can learn about sources of data that you might not
have known before.

93
 Cont’d

 You can know other researchers tackling

similar problems.
 Potential literature sources:
 General information: (Google
Google Scholar), etc.
 Books: Library, amazon.com

 Articles:

 JSTOR: www.jstor.org
 EconLit
 Web Pages
94
 Cont’d

Structuring the review:

 Summarize every article briefly; a
sentence or two will do.
 Interpret the article in light of its
relevance to your own study.
 Critique it, if necessary.
 Show the stock of knowledge building up over
the course of the literature.
 Show how your research topic adds naturally to
this stock of knowledge.
95
 4. Developing hypothesis/Question

 Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses

depends on factors such as:
 the purpose of the study,
 the nature of the required data and
 the design and methodology of the research.
 Research Question
 The term question implies an interrogative statement
that can be answered by data,
 Research Questions are most often used in qualitative
inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is
becoming more prominent.
 A research question poses a relationship between two or
more variables as a question.
 A hypothesis is a statement, which predicts the
relationship between two or more variables.
 Formulating an appropriate and realistic research
hypothesis is a pre-requisite for a sound research.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and keep him/her on the
right track.

 It is a tentative answer to a research question that can

be confirmed or disproved by data.

 Formulating hypothesis is particularly useful for causal

98

relationships.
 Cont’d

 Major problems in formulating a

working hypothesis:
 Formulation of a hypothesis is not an easy task.
 The major problems that may arise include:
 The lack of clear theoretical framework
 The lack of ability to utilize that
theoretical framework logically
 Lack of experience in research techniques in order to
be able to phrase the hypothesis properly.

99
 Cont’d

 Theoretical framework:
 Definition. Theories are formulated to explain,
predict, and understand phenomena and, in
many cases, to challenge and extend existing
knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions.
 The theoretical framework is the structure that
can hold or support a theory of a research study.

100
 Cont’d

 Characteristics of useable hypotheses:

 The hypothesis must be conceptually clear.
 This involves two things:
 the concept should be clearly defined,
 the hypothesis should be commonly
accepted (i.e
the hypothesis should be stated in simple terms.
 The hypothesis should have empirical references.
 no useable hypothesis embody moral judgments.
 while a hypothesis may study value judgment such a goal
must be separated from a moral preachment or a plea for
acceptance of one’s values. 101
 Cont’d

 The hypothesis must be specific.

 all the operations and predictions indicated by it should
be spelled out.
 The hypothesis should be related to available
techniques.
 A theorist who does not know what techniques are
available to test his/her hypothesis is on a poor way to
formulate useable hypothesis or questions.
 The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory.
 It should posses theoretical relevance.
 The hypothesis should be testable.
 hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it is
possible to verify it. 102
 What is the importance of a hypothesis or question?
 provides direction to the research/project objectives,
 facilitates the extension of knowledge in the area of the
research/project,
 gives direction to the data gathering procedure and
 provides the bases for reporting conclusion of the
study
Types of research hypotheses
The research hypothesis can be stated as either;
 Declarative form, or
 The null form

 Declarative form
 The declarative form of hypotheses are positive
statement about the expected outcome of a study.
 The declarative form of hypothesis are further divided
into:
 Directional or
 Non-directional
 Directional
 The directional hypothesis stipulates the direction of the
expected differences or relationships.
- For example, the hypothesis:
- “Soil qualities in terms of nutrients are much higher
on cultivated land than on fields under forest and
pasture land” is directional and declarative.
 Non-directional
 A statement which does not specify the direction of
expected difference or relationship is a non-directional
research hypothesis.
 For example, the hypothesis:
 “Soil qualities in terms of nutrients on cultivated land
and fields under forest and pasture land are not the
same” is declarative, however, Non-directional.
 The Null Form
 In the null form, the research hypothesis can make a
statement that states no relationship.
 For example, the hypothesis
 “there is no difference in soil fertility status
between cultivated and pasture fields of farmers” is
the null form.
 5. Scope and Limitations

 A research project must be clear about its scope:

(a) Geographical limitations
 The study might only focus on some regions,
though the question pertains to even a given
Ethiopia. country –

(b) Limitations by industry or occupation

 The study might only be able to capture some industries
or occupations- formal or informal sector.

(c) Limitations by subject matter

 The researcher also must know that many other
interesting questions may arise that are outside of the
scope of the study.
108
 6. Preparing the Research Design

 Research design is a plan that specifies the sources and

types of information relevant to the research.
 It is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose.

 It is the conceptual structure, plan, and strategy

of investigation within which research is conducted.

 It is the blue print for collection, measurement

and analysis of data.
 The design that gives the smallest experimental error is
the best design. 109
 Cont’d

 The following are critical elements when making

design decisions:
 What type of data is required (required data)
 Where can the required data be found (source of data)
 What will be the sampling design
 What techniques of data collection will be used
 How will the data be analyzed (method of data analysis)

110
 7. Sample Selection

 The researcher must decide on

sampling methods.
 Probability or non-probability sampling methods
can be employed.

111
 8. Execution of the Project

 Execution involves how the survey is conducted

i.e., by means of structured/semi-structured
questionnaire or otherwise, etc.
 Several data collection methods do exist ,which
may differ in terms of:
 Financial costs
 Time costs
 Other resources

112
 Cont’d

 Survey data can be collected by any one or more of the

following ways:
 By observations
 Through personal interviews
 Through telephone interviews
 By mailing questionnaires/through schedules
 The researcher should select one of these
methods taking into account:
 the nature of investigations,
 objectives and scope of the study,
 financial resources,
 available time and the desired level of accuracy, etc. 113
 9. Analyzing the
Data
 After the data have been collected the
researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
 The analysis may involve a number of
closely related operations such as:
 Editing of the raw data
 Summarizing and of the data to obtain
tabulation answers to
research questions
 Drawing statistical inferences
 Spatial analysis
 Spatial statistics

114
 Cont’d

 Various statistical software are available for data

entry and analysis.
 SPSS, STATA, SAS Cspro,
Spreadsheet programs such as Excel, Lotus,
etc.

 Second round editing is done once the data entry is

completed by examining the frequency
distributions, averages, ranges modes, etc. to detect
outliers.
 Analysis is completed with the preparation of
descriptive
MODELS ortables, mathematical
programming models, SPATIAL
models. 115
10. Interpretation and Generalizations
 Explaining and discussing the research results in line
with the theoretical framework is part of the
interpretation exercise.
 The real value of a research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations.
11. Preparation of the Report
 The research process is completed only when the results
are shared with the scientific community.
 Report should be written in concise and objective style
in simple language avoiding vague expressions.
116
 Ethical Consideration in the
Research Process
 Shared Values
 There is no one best way to undertake research.
 There is no universal method that
applies to all scientific investigations.
 Accepted practices for the conduct of research can
and do vary from discipline to discipline.

 There are, however, some important shared values for

the responsible conduct of research that bind all
researchers together.

117
 Some of the most important shared values

 HONESTY — conveying information truthfully

and honoring commitments,

 ACCURACY — reporting findings precisely and

taking care to avoid errors,

 EFFICIENCY — using resources wisely and

avoiding waste, and

 OBJECTIVITY — letting the facts speak for

themselves and avoiding improper bias.
118
 Cont’d

 During data collection,

 Some ethical governing data collection
principles
include: informed consent, respect for privacy and
safeguarding the confidentiality of data.
 Informed consent implies that persons who are
invited to participate in research activities should be
free to choose to take part or refuse.
 They are free to decide after having been given the
fullest information concerning the nature and purpose
of the research, including any risks to which they
personally would be exposed, the arrangements for
maintaining the confidentiality of the data, and so on.
119
 Cont’d
 Thus, collection of data illegally, under false pretenses,
from minors, etc is unethical.
 Getting access and consent to do research is therefore,
essential.
 During analysis (Misuse of data)

 Fabrication and falsification of research results are

serious forms of misconduct.
 It is the primary responsibility of a researcher to avoid
either a false statement or an omission that distorts the
truth.
 In order to preserve accurate documentation of
observed facts with which later reports or conclusions
can be compared, every researcher has an obligation to
maintain a clear and complete record of data acquired . 120
 Cont’d

 Records should include sufficient detail to

permit examination for the purpose of,
 replicating the research,
 responding to questions that may
result from unintentional error or misinterpretation,
 establishing authenticity of the records, and
 confirming the validity of the conclusions.
 It is considered a breach of research integrity to fail to
report data that contradict or merely fail to support
the conclusions, including the purposeful withholding
of information about confounding factors.
 Negative (unexpected) results must be reported. 121
 Cont’d
 When writing the research paper- Plagiarism
 Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's
thoughts or wording either by:
 incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources
altogether, or
 simply by relying too heavily on external resources.
 Whether intentional or inadvertent some or all of
another author's ideas become represented as your
own.
 Plagiarizing undermines your academic integrity.
 It betrays your own responsibilities as a student writer,
your audience, and the very research community you
were entering by deciding to write a research paper in
the first place. 122
 Cont’d

 Incidentally, plagiarism also includes informal

published material such as the "buying" of a paper
from another student.

 If you feel cheating is an easy way-out, and the moral

and intellectual consequences don't sound alarm bells,
stop and think of the serious punitive repercussions
you could incur.

 Because it is intellectual theft, plagiarism is considered

as an academic crime with punishment anywhere from
an F on that particular paper to dismissal from the
course to expulsion from a college or university.
123
  Preparing the Research Proposal

 The research proposal helps the researcher to organize

ideas in a way it will be possible to look for flaws or
inadequacies
 It is a pre-requisite in the research process.
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the
project and provides a systematic plan of procedure for
the researcher to follow.
 It assures that the parties understand the project’s
purpose and the proposed method of investigation.
 It provides an inventory/guide of what must be done
and which materials have to be collected.

124
125
 A research proposal should usually contain the
following categories of information:

I. Introduction – this part should include the

following information:
1. The title:
 It should be worded in such a way that it suggests
the theme of the study.
 It should be long enough to be explicit but not too
long so that it is tedious – usually between 15 and 25
words.
 It should contain the key words –important words

that indicate the subject. 126

 Cont’d

 There are three types of titles:

 Indicative titles:
 they state the subject of the proposal
rather than expected outcomes.
 Example: The role of agricultural credit in
alleviating
poverty in a low-potential area of Ethiopia.
 Hanging titles:

have two parts: a general first part
followed by a more specific second part.
 Example: Alleviation of poverty in low-potential areas of
Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit. 127
 Cont’d

 Question-type titles:

These are used less commonly than
indicative and hanging titles.
 However, they are acceptable where it is possible
to use few words – say less than 15.
 Example: Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty in
low-potential areas of Ethiopia.

128
2. Statement of the Problem:

 This section makes up between ¼ - ½ of the proposal.

 It is an expansion of the title.
 It introduces the research by situating it (by giving
background), presenting the research problem and saying
how and why this problem will be “solved.“

 Without this important information the reader cannot

easily understand the more detailed information about
the research that comes later.
 It also explains why the research is being done (rationale)
which is crucial for the reader to understand the
significance of the study.
129
 Cont’d

 The problem statement should make a convincing

argument that there is no sufficient knowledge
available to explain the problem or there is a need
to test what is known and taken as fact.
• It should provide a brief overview of the literature and
research done in the field related to the problem and of
the gaps that the proposed research intended to fill.
 Some ways to demonstrate that you are adding to
the knowledge in your field:
•
Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little research
has been carried out.
130
 Cont’d
• Raising a question: The research problem is defined
by asking a question to which the answer is
unknown, and which you will explore in your
research.
• Continuing a previously developed line of
enquiry: Building on work already done, but taking
it further (by using a new sample, extending the
area studied, taking more factors into consideration,
taking fewer factors into consideration, etc.).
• Counter-claiming: A conflicting claim, theory or
method is put forward.
131
3. Objectives of the study:
 In this section the specific activities to performed are
listed.
 This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the
problem in as specific terms as possible.
 This section is rather brief usually not >½ a page at
most.
 This is because the rationale for each objective will
already have been established in the previous section.

132
 Cont’d

 The general objective provides a short statement

of the specific goals pursued by the research.
 The specific objectives are the objectives against
which the success of the whole research will be
judged.
 The specific objectives are operational and indicate the
type of knowledge to be produced, audiences to be
reached, etc.
 An objective for a proposal should be Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound –
that is, SMART.
133
4. The Hypothesis:
 Questions that the research is designed to answer are
usually framed as hypothesis to be tested on the basis of
evidence.
 It gives direction to the data gathering procedure.
5. Significance of the Study:
 This section justifies the need of the study.
 It describes the type of knowledge expected to be
obtained and the intended purpose of its application.
 It should indicate clearly how the results of the research
could influence theory or practice.
134
 Rationale:
 The rationale for undertaking a research study can
be:
1. To show the existence of a time lapse between the earlier
study and the present one, and therefore, the new
knowledge, techniques or considerations indicate the
need to replicate the study.

2. To show that there are gaps in knowledge

provided by previous research studies and to show how
the present study will help to fill in these gaps and add
to the quantum of existing knowledge.

135
 Cont’d
 Hence, the justification should answer the following:
 How does the research relate to the priorities
of the region and the country?
 What knowledge and information will be obtained?
 What is the ultimate purpose the knowledge obtained
from the study will serve?
 How will the results be disseminated?
 How will the results be used, and who will
be the
beneficiaries? 136
6. Definition of terms and concepts:
 It is necessary to define all unusual terms and concepts
that could be misinterpreted.
 Technical terms or words and phrases having
special meanings need to be defined operationally.
7. Scope and limitations of the study:
 Boundaries of the study should be made clear with reference
to:
 (i) the scope of the study by specifying the areas to which
the conclusions will be confined and
 (ii) the procedural treatment including the
sampling procedures, the techniques of
data
analysis,
collection
etc. and
8. Basic assumptions:
 Assumptions are statements of ideas that
are accepted as true.
 They serve as the foundation upon which the research
study is based.

138
 9. Review of Literature:
 It refers to reading of existing literatures, such as
published books, research reports from various
sources, office reports etc. that have direct relation
to the problem studied.
 The theoretical and empirical framework
from which the problem arises must briefly be
discussed.
 Both conceptual and empirical literature is to
be reviewed for this purpose.
 The researcher has to make it clear that his
problem has roots in the existing literature but it
needs further research and exploration.
 The analysis of previous research eliminates the risk 139
of duplication of what has been done.
 Why does the Researcher Revise the Related
Literature?
 The review of the related literature (Koul, 1984:8) enables
the researcher to:
 be up-to-date on the work which others have done; and
this further enables him to justify that his problem has
roots in the existing literature but it needs further
investigation,
 avoid unintentional duplication of well-investigated
problem,
 understand and scrutinize scientifically tested
research methodology relevant to his study,
 identify the tools and instruments of the data
collection which are proved to be useful
and promising in the previous studies ;
 get bases for formulating hypotheses, and
 know about the recommendations of previous
researchers for further research which they have
listed in their studies.
 How to organize the Related Literature

 There are a number of ways of organizing a literature

review.
 Here are two suggestions
 Suggestion 1: Build it under one heading
 Suggestion 2: Build it under different headings
 Build it under one heading
 It should follow the structure of
 Introduction: define the topic, together with your
reason for selecting the topic.
 Body: this is where you discuss your sources.
 You may discuss the body
 Chronologically,

 Thematically, or

 methodologically
 Conclusion:
 summarize the major contributions,
 evaluating the current position, and
 pointing out:
 flaws in methodology,
 gaps in the research,
 contradictions in, and
 areas for further study
 Build it under different headings
 Identify sections of the review of the related literature
 outline the sections of the discussion under different
headings.
 One of the best guide to identify the sections of review
of related literature is to relate it to the objectives of the
study.
 A careful consideration of the objectives of the study
should suggest relevant section for the discussion of
related literature.
 Writing the sections of the review of the
related literature
 In the discussion
 Give an account for the cited information in terms
of the research problem;
 Try to extract important information and paraphrase
it;
 Use short direct quotation;
 Use long direct quotations only for very good
reason, otherwise avoid using long direct
quotations;
 Discuss the related literature from:
 a comprehensive perspective to more and
more specific or more localized studies which focus
closer and closer to the specific problem of the
study.
 Avoid direct copying
 Direct copying other than direct short and long
quotation is plagiarism
 Cont’d

II) Methodology

 The methodology explains how each specific

objective will be achieved.

 It is impossible to define the budgetary needs

of the research project in the absence of a solid
methodology section.

148
 Cont’d
a) Procedures for data collection: details about
sampling procedures and data collection tools
are described.
(i) Sampling – in research situations the researcher
usually comes across unmanageable populations in
which large numbers are involved.
(ii) Tools (instruments) – in order to collect evidence or
data for a study the researcher has to make use of
certain tools such as observations, interviews,
questionnaires, etc.
 The proposal should explain the reasons for
selecting a particular tool or tools for collecting
the data.
149
 Cont’d

b) Procedures for treating data (method of analysis)

 In this section, the researcher describes how to organize,
analyses and interprets the data.
 The details of the statistical techniques and the rationale
for using such techniques should be described in the
research proposal.
(i) Statistical inference models
 Regression analysis is a good analytical tool, providing a
method to test various hypotheses relating to the
classical economic theory.
 The analysis is built upon the casual factor-effect analytical
framework.
 A range of regression models as well as various ways of
estimating regression coefficients, the most common being 150
the OLS method.
 Cont’d
(ii) Mathematical programming models
 An example of a mathematical programming model is
the linear programming model.
 It is, however, only one example from a wide range of
mathematical models.
 There are also non-linear and dynamic mathematical
programming models that address a range of economic
and policy analysis questions and hypotheses.
 The central theme in these models is to optimize an
objective functions subject to a set of constraints.

151
 Cont’d
(iii) Simulation models:

 Simulation is the operation of an abstract prototype of

a real system designed to trace out dynamic
interactions.

 Simulation models have acquired substantial appeal

among policy analysts because of their ability to
explore the consequences of a wide range of
alternative sets of policies, plans and even
management strategies.

152
 Cont’d

III) Budgeting and Scheduling the Research

 Research costs money, depending on its complexity and
number of people and activities employed.
 A proposal should include a budget estimating the funds
required for travel expenses, typing, printing, purchase of
equipment, tools, books, etc.
 It would include all or some of the following items:
 Management time
 Bought out resources time
 Data collection
 Data analysis cost – software and hardware
 Transport cost
 Respondent’s incentives
153
 Cont’d
 Budget
 Research endeavors involves material, manpower
and time.
 These components have to be valued in terms of
finance.
 Or the researcher may present the proposal to
sponsoring organizations, so all estimated financial
requirements should be listed by category.
 Generally the costs can be divided into:
 Direct costs and
 Indirect costs
 Cont’d

 Direct costs
 Include at least:
 Personnel cost,
 Consumable supplies,
 Equipment's,
 Travel,
 Communications,
 Publication, and
 Other direct costs.
 Cont’d

 Personnel: Salaries and wages of all participants of

the study
 Principal investigator;
 supervisor;
 data collector;
 drivers;
 guards;
 data entry clerks,
 data analysis,
 report writing, etc
 Cont’d

 Consumable supplies:
 office supplies (stationeries),
 computers,
 Chemicals (if appropriate), and
 educational materials (books, journals)
 Cont’d

 Equipment: properties which are expensive

 Travel: cost of project-related travel
Field travel
 Travel for workshops and symposiums
 Communications:
 postage,
 telephone, fax,
 e-mail charges associated with a project
 Cont’d

 Publication: the cost incurred of preparing and

publishing the results of the research. It includes:
 technical reports,
 manuscripts,
 illustrations,
 graphics,
 photogra

phy,
 slides,

and
 others
 Cont’d
 Indirect costs
 Those costs incurred in support and management of the
proposed activities that can not be readily determined by
direct measurement. Examples includes;
 Overhead costs for institutions or associations
 General administrative cost
 Operational and maintenance
 Depreciation and use allowance
 Cont’d

 Work plan
 Research must also be scheduled appropriately.
 Researcher should also prepare a realistic time
schedule for completing the study within the
time available.
 Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates
for the completion of each phase helps the
researcher to use is time systematically.
 Cont’d
 Work plan is a schedule, chart or graph that
summarizes how different components of a research
proposal will be implemented in a coherent way within
a specific time-span.
 It may include:
 The tasks to be performed;
 When and where the tasks will be performed;
 Who will perform the tasks and the time each person
will spend on them;
 It describes the plan of assessing the ongoing progress
toward achieving the research objectives; 162
 Cont’d

 The plan specifies how each project activity is to be

measured in terms of completion, the time line for its
completion;
 A good work time plan enables all the parts:
 the investigator,
 the advisor(s), and
 sponsoring organization to monitor project progress
and provide timely feedback for research modification
or adjustments
 Cont’d

IV. Citations and references

 It is important that you correctly cite all consulted
published and unpublished documents that you
refer to in the proposal.
 This allows the reader to know the sources
of your information.
 Every reference you cited must appear in the list
of references at the end of the proposal.
 How many types of citations do exist?
Please refer.
164
 Cont’d

VI. Bibliography:
 Be sure to include every work that was referred to in the
proposal
 You do not have to refer to any other works if you do not
want to; the bibliography does not have to be long or
complete.
 Formats vary slightly by journal, etc.
 A common format:
 For a book: Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London: Dent and Sons
publishing.
 For an article: Coase, R (1937). “The Nature of the Firm.”
Economica 4, 386-405.
165
 Cont’d
 References
 It is a must to give references to all the information that
you obtain from books, papers in journals, and other
sources.
 References may be made in:
 the main text and
 the reference section.
 Cont’d

 References may be made in the main text using:

 index numbers in brackets (Vancouver style) or
 authors name (Harvard style).
 You also need to place a list of references:
 numbered as in the main text, if you use Vancouver
style in the text,
 or alphabetically ordered, if you use Harvard style in
the text.
 Cont’d

 The exact format for depicting references within the body

of the text and as well as the end of the proposal varies
from one discipline to another.
 The information you give in the reference list must be
enough for readers to find the books and papers in a
library or a database.
 Cont’d
 Building Reference Section
 The list of reference section should contain all the works that the
researcher has cited in the text
 Asa general guideline, there are certain items that must
be included from each source reference.
 For a journal paper give:
 the names of the authors,
 the year of publication,
 the title of the paper,
 the title of the journal,
 the volume number of the journal,
 the first and last page numbers of the paper.
 Cont’d
 For a book give:
 the author,
 the year of publication,
 the title, and the edition number if there is one,
 the name of the publisher,
 the page numbers for your reference (if the book has
different papers by contribution of different Authors).
 Cont’d

 For an internet reference give:

 the author of the web page,
 the title of the item on the web page,
 the date the item was posted on the web page
 the date the item was accessed from the web page
 the complete and exact URL.
 Cont’d
 Examples
 For a journal paper
 Assefa Abegaz and H. van Keulen. 2009. Modelling soil
nutrient
dynamics under alternative farm management practices in the
Highlands of Ethiopia. Soil Tillage Res. 103, 203-
Northern 215.
 For a book
Zikmund, W.G., 2000. Business Research Methods. Sixth Ed. The Dryden
press.

For a reference that is found in a book by Eds.

Doran, J.W., Parkin, T.B., 1994. Defining and assessing soil quality. In:
Doran, J.W., Coleman, J.W. and Bezdicek, D.F. (Eds.), Defining soil
quality for a sustainable environment. Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Special Publ.
35. ASA-SSSA, Madison. WI, USA. pp. 3-21
 Cont’d
 For an internet reference
UN, 2002. United Nations Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/eue_web/eue
_mnu.htm. (consulted in April 2005).
 Cont’d
 Appendices/Annexes

 Include in the appendices of your proposal any additional

information you think might be helpful to a proposal
reviewer.
 For example, include:
 Questionnaire & other collection forms
 Dummy tables
 Biographical data of the principal investigator
 The consent form (if any)
 Survey and Field Research Methods

 Survey research is one of the most basic methods in

social, medical researches.
 Survey research a rigorous step by step
permits
development and testing of complex
through survey data. propositions
 The aim of sample surveys is to generalize from the
sample to the population.
 The three most common purposes of surveys are:
 Description
 Explanation, and
 Exploration
175
 Cont’d
 One can distinguish between two basic types of
survey designs:
 Cross sectional surveys
 Data are collected at one point in time
 Less expensive and most common type
 Longitudinal Survey
 Surveys are conducted at different point in time.
 Useful for capturing changes over time.
 Survey Sampling:
 Some studies involve only small number of people and
thus all of them can be included.
 But when the population is large, it is usually
possible to undertake a census of all items not
in population. the
 Cont’d

 Sampling is the process of selecting a number of

study units from a defined study population.
 It aims at obtaining consistent and
unbiased
estimates of the population parameters.
 There are two principles underlying any
sample
 The design:
need to avoid bias in selection
the procedure
 The need to gain maximum
precision.

177
 Cont’d
 Bias can arise:
 if the selection of the sample is done by some
non-random method i.e. selection is consciously
or unconsciously influenced by human choice.
 if the sampling frame (i.e. list, index, population
record) does not adequately cover the target
population.
 if some sections of the population are
impossible to find or refuse to co-operate.

178
 Cont’d
 Major Reasons for Sampling
1) Resource Limitations: A sample study is usually less
expensive than a census.
2) Superior Quality of Results:
 more accurate measurement
3) Infinite Population: sampling is also the only process
possible if the population is infinite.
4) Destructive nature of some tests: sampling remains the
only option when a test involves the destruction of the
items under study.
 Example: testing the quality of a commodity (beer,

cigarette, coffee, etc.)

179
 Cont’d
 Representativeness:
• Representativeness is important particularly if
you want to make generalization about the
population.
• A representative sample has all the important
characteristics of the population from which it is
drawn.
 For Quantitative Studies:
• If researchers want to draw conclusions which
are valid for the whole study population, they
should draw a sample in such a way that it is
representative of that population.
180
 Cont’d

 For Qualitative Studies:

• Representativeness of the sample is NOT a
primary concern.
• We select study units which give us the richest
possible information.
 You go for INFORMATION-RICH cases!

181
 Cont’d
 Steps in Sampling Design
a) Identifying the relevant population: when one wants to
undertake a sample survey the relevant population from
which the sample is going to be drawn need to be
identified.
 Example: if the study concerns income, then the
definition of the population elements as individuals
or households can make a difference.
b) Determining the method of sampling:
 Whether a probability sampling procedure or a non-
probability sampling procedure has to be used is also
very important.
182
 Cont’d
c) Securing a sampling frame:
A list of elements from which the sample is
actually drawn is important and necessary
(e.g. Kebele registry)
d) Identifying parameters of interest:
 What specific population characteristics
(variables and attributes) may be of interest.

183
 Cont’d
e) Determining the sample size:
 The determination of the sample size depends on
several factors:
i) Degree of homogeneity:
 The size of the population variance is the

single most important parameter.

 The greater the dispersion in the population

the larger the sample must be to provide a

given estimation precession.

184
 Survey and Field Research Methods… cont’d

ii) Degree of confidence required:

 Since a sample can never reflect its population for certain,
the researcher must determine how much precision s/he
needs.
 Precision is measured in terms of:
 An interval range in which we would expect to find the
parameter estimate.
 The degree of confidence we wish to have in the estimate.
iii) Number of sub groups to be studied:
 When the researcher is interested in making
estimates concerning various subgroups of the
population
sample mustthen be
the large enough for each of
subgroups to meet the desired quality level.
these
 Cont’d
iv) Cost: Cost considerations have major
impact on decisions about the size and type of
sample.
 All studies have some budgetary constraint and hence cost
dictates the size of the sample.

 To determine sample size:

1. Use prior information: If our process has been
studied before, we can use that prior information
to determine our sample size.
 This can be done by using prior mean and variance
estimates and by stratifying the population to reduce
variation within groups. 186
 Cont’d

2. Rule of Thumb: are based on past experience with samples

that have met the requirements of the statistical methods.
 Researchers use it because they rarely have information on
the variance or standard errors.
3. Practicality: Of course the sample size you select
must make sense.
 We want to take enough observations to obtain reasonably
precise estimates of the parameters of interest but we also
want to do this within a practical resource budget.
 Therefore the sample size is usually a compromise
between what is DESIRABLE and what is FEASIBLE.
 In general, the smaller the population, the bigger the
sampling ratio has to be for a reasonable sample.

187
 Cont’d

 Hence:
 For small populations (<1000), a researcher needs a large
sampling ratio (about 30%). Hence, a sample size of
about 300 is required for a high degree of accuracy.
 For moderately large population (10,000), a smaller
sampling ratio (about 10%) is needed – a sample size
around 1,000.
 To sample from very large population (over 10 million),
one can achieve accuracy using tiny sampling ratios
(.025%) or samples of about 2,500.
 These are approximate sizes, and practical limitations
(e.g. cost) also play a role in a researcher’s decision about
sample size. 188
 Cont’d
 Sample Size in Qualitative Studies
 There are no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research.
 The size of the sample depends on WHAT you try to find out,
and from what different informants or perspectives you try to
find that out.
 The sample size is therefore estimated as precisely as

possible, but not determined.

 Probability and non-probability sampling
 There could be several sampling methods that could be used
to draw a sample.
 Two types:
 probability samples

 non-probability means.

189
 Cont’d
 Probability sampling:

 Is based on the concept of random selection of survey

units.
 It uses a random selection procedures to ensure that
each unit of the sample is chosen on the basis of chance.
 A randomization process is used in order to reduce or
eliminate sampling bias so that the sample is
representative of the population from which it is drawn.
 A sample will be representative of the population from which it
is drawn if all members of the population have an equal chance
of being included in the sample.
 Probability sampling requires a sampling frame (a
listing of all study units).
190
 Cont’d
 Probability samples, although not perfectly
representative are more representative than any other
type of sample.

 So, probability sampling has considerable advantages

over other sampling methods:
• Sampling errors can be calculated.
• They rely on random process, i.e. the selection process
operates in a truly random method (no pattern).
• Finally, since each element has an equal chance or
probability of being selected it is possible to get consistent
and unbiased estimate of the population parameter.

191
 Cont’d
 Types of probability sampling methods:
 We can distinguish between the following types
of probability sampling methods:
 Simple Random Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
 Hybrid Sampling

192
 Cont’d

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

 The SRS is the simplest and easiest method of
probability sampling.
 It is the sampling procedure in which each element
of the population has an equal chance of being
selected into the sample.
 It assumes that an accurate sampling frame exists.
 Usually two SRS methods are adopted to pick
a sample.
 The lottery method
 Table of random number

193
 Cont’d

 SRS requires a listing of the entire population

of interest. This may not be possible for national
surveys.

 It is too expensive to interview a national sample face

to face based on SRS.
 The cost of interviewing randomly selected individual
drawn from a list of the entire population is extremely
high.

 So, the SRS can only be applied in situations where

the population size is small.
194
 Cont’d

2. Systematic Sampling Technique

 In SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING individuals are chosen

at regular intervals (for example every fifth) from the
sampling frame.
 Instead of a list of random number the researcher
calculates a sampling interval.
 The sampling interval is the standard distance between
elements selected in the sample.
 The major advantages of SS are its simplicity and
flexibility.

195
 Cont’d

3. Stratified Sampling
 Most populations can be segregated into a number
of mutually exclusive sub-populations or Strata.

 The stratified sampling technique is particularly

useful when we have heterogeneous populations.

 After a population is divided into the appropriate

strata a simple random sample can be taken either
using the SRS or the SS techniques from each
stratum.
196
 Cont’d

 Reasons for stratifying

 There three major reasons why a researcher
are
chooses a stratified random sampling.
 To increase a sample’s statistical efficiency.
 To provide adequate data for analyzing the various sub-
population.
 To enable different research methods and procedures to
be used in different strata.

197
 Cont’d
 How to Stratify
 Three major decisions must made in order to
be stratify the given into some
exclusive
population
groups. mutually
(1) What stratification base to use: stratification would be
based on the principal variable under study such as
income, age, education, sex, location, religion, etc.
(2) How many strata to use: there is no precise answer as
to how many strata to use.
 The more strata the closer one would be to come to
maximizing inter-strata differences and minimizing intra-
strata variables.

198
 Cont’d

(3) What strata sample size to draw:

different approaches could be used:

 One could adopt a proportionate sampling procedure:

 If the number of units selected from the different

strata are proportional to the total number of units of
the strata then we have proportionate sampling.

 Oruse disproportionate sampling, which

allocates
elements on the basis of some bias.

199
 Cont’d
4. Cluster Sampling:
 The selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead
of the selection of study units individually is called
CLUSTER SAMPLING.
 If the total area of interest happens to be a big one and can
be divided into a number of smaller non –overlapping
areas (clusters) and if some of the groups or clusters are
selected randomly we have cluster sampling.

 Clusters are often geographic units (e.g., districts,

villages) or organizational units (e.g., firms, clinics,
training groups, etc).

 Cluster sampling addresses two problems:

 Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed
population.
200
 Cont’d
 The cost to reach a sample element is very high and cluster
sampling reduces cost by concentrating surveys in selected
clusters.
 Multistage area sampling (MAS) - is a
cluster sampling with several stages:
 First take a sample of a set of geographic regions or clusters –
randomly select X number of clusters.

 Next, a subset of geographic area is sampled within each of

those regions and so on.

 Finally a sample of elements is drawn from smaller areas.

5. Hybrid sampling:
 Where there is no single way to sample a
particular population some researchers use a
combination
different methods of . the four
discussed above 201
 Cont’d
 Non-Probability Sampling
 Non-probability selection is non random i.e., each
member does not have a known non-zero chance
of being included.
 Generally thee conditions need to be met in order
to use non-probability sampling.
 First, if there is no desire to generalize to a
population parameter, then there is much less
concern whether or not the sample fully reflects the
population - when precise representation is not
necessary.
202
 Cont’d
 Secondly, it is used because of cost and
requirements.
time
 probability sampling could be prohibitively
expensive since it calls more planning and
for repeated
callbacks to that each selected
sample unit
assure
is contacted.
 Thirdly, though probability sampling may be
superior in theory there are breakdowns in its
applications.
 The total population may not be available for
the study in certain cases.
203
 Non-probability sampling methods:
 (1) Convenience sampling
 The method selects anyone who is convenient.
 It can produce ineffective, highly un-
representative samples and is not recommended.
 Such samples are cheap, however, biased and

full of systematic errors.

 Example: the person on the street
interview conducted by television programs
is an example of a convenient sample.

204
 (2) Quota Sampling
 Quotas are assigned to different strata groups and
interviewers are given quotas to be filled from
different strata.
 A researcher first identifies categories of people
(e.g., male, female) then decides how many to get
from each category.
 The major limitation of this method is the absence
of an element of randomization. Consequently the
extent of sampling error cannot be estimated.
 is used in opinion pollsters, marketing research
and other similar research areas.

205
 (3) Purposive or Judgment sampling
 Purposive sampling occurs when one draws a non-
probability sample based on certain criteria.
 When focusing on a limited number of informants,
whom we select strategically so that their in-depth
information will give optimal insight into an issue is
known as purposeful sampling.
 It uses the judgment of the expert in selecting cases.
 BUT, care should be taken that for different
categories of informants; selection rules are
developed to prevent the researcher from sampling
according to personal preference.
206
(4) Snowball (Network) Sampling
 This is a method for identifying and sampling (or
selecting) the cases in a network.
 Snowball sampling is based on an analogy to a
snowball, which begins small but becomes
larger as it is rolled on wet snow and pick up
additional snow.
 Snowball sampling begins with one or a few people
or cases and spread out on the basis of links to the
initial case.
 You start with one or two information-rich
key informants and ask them if they know
persons who know a lot about your topic of
interest.
207
Pr oblems in Sampling
 Two types of errors:
 Non sampling errors
 Sampling errors
 Non Sampling errors are biases or errors due to
fieldwork problems, interviewer induced bias,
clerical problems in managing data, etc.
 These would contribute to error in a survey,
irrespective of whether a sample is drawn or a
census is taken.
 On the other hand, error which is attributable to
sampling, and which therefore, is not present in
information gathered in a census is called sampling
error.
208
 a) Non-Sampling Error
 Non sampling error refer to
 Non-coverage error
 Wrong population is being sampled
 No response error
 Instrument error
 Interviewer’s error
 Non-Coverage sampling error: This refers to sample
frame defect.
 Omission of part of the target population (for
instance, soldiers, students living on campus, people
in hospitals, prisoners, households without a
telephone in telephone surveys, etc).
 Non-coverage error also occurs when the list used
for the sampling are incomplete or are outdated. 209
 The wrong population is sampled
 Researchers must always be sure that the group
being sampled is drawn from the population they
want to generalize about or the intended
population.
 Non response error
 Some people refuse to be interviewed because they
are ill, are too busy, or simply do not trust the
interviewer.
 One should try to reduce the incidence of
non-response errors.
 Non-response error can occur in any interview
situation, but it is mostly encountered in large-scale
surveys with self-administered questionnaires.

210
 It is important in any study to mention the non-
response rate and to honestly discuss whether and
how the non-response might have influenced the
results.
 Instrument error
 The word instrument in sampling survey means the
device in which we collect data- usually a
questionnaire.
 When a question is badly asked or worded, the
resulting error is called instrument error.
 Example: leading questions or carelessly
worded questions may be misinterpreted by
some researchers. 211
 Interviewer error : This occurs when some
characteristics of the interviewer such as age, sex,
affects the way in which the respondent answer
questions.
 Example: questions about sexual behavior might be
differently answered depending on the gender of
the interviewer.
 To sum up, a researcher must ensure that non
sampling error are avoided as far as possible, or is
evenly balanced (non systematic) and thus
cancels out in the calculation of the population
estimates.

212
b) Sampling Errors
 Sampling errors are random variations in the
sample estimates around the true
population parameters.
 Error which is attributable to sampling, and
which therefore is not present in a census-
gathered information, is called sampling
error.
 Sampling errors can be calculated only for
probability samples.
 Increasing the sample size is one of the major
instruments to reduce the extent of the sampling
error.
 Sampling error is related to confidence intervals. 213
 A narrower confidence interval means more
precise estimates of the population for a given
level of confidence.
 The confidence interval for the true
mean is given by:
population 
Mean  z n
 Mean is the sample mean, z is the value of the
standard variate at a given confidence level (to be
read from the table giving the area under the
normal curve) n is the sample size, and  is the
standard deviation of the sample mean.
 The sampling error is given by: 
z
n 214
 Dealing with missing data:
 There are several reasons why the data may be
missing.
They may be missing because equipment
malfunctioned, the weather was terrible, or
people got sick, or the data were not entered
correctly.
 If data are missing at random, by far the most
common approach is to simply omit those cases
with missing data and to run our analyses on what
remains.

215
 Although deletion often results in a substantial
decrease in the sample size available for the
analysis, it does have important advantages.
 Under the assumption that data are "missing at
random”, it leads to unbiased parameter
estimates.
 If, on the other hand, data are not missing at
random, but are missing as a function of some
other variable, a complete treatment of missing
data would have to include a model that accounts
for missing data.
216
 Data Collection Techniques
 Every study is a search for information about the
given topic.
 Qualitative and Quantitative data
 The data should be sufficient to test the
hypotheses
 Collection of the data should be
feasible
 The question is from where and how to
get the information (the data).
 Data can be acquired from:
 Secondary sources 217


Secondary Sources of data
 Secondary sources are those, which have
been collected by other individuals or
agencies.
 As much as possible secondary data should always
be considered first, if available.
 Why reinvent the wheel if the data already exists.
 When dealing with secondary data you should ask:
 Is the owner of the data making them available to
you?
 Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
 Are the data in a format that you can work with?
218
 Advantages of Secondary data
 Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
 Most researches on past events or distant places have
to rely on secondary data sources.
 Limitations
 The information often does not meet one’s specific

needs.
 Definitions might differ, units of measurements may be
different and different time periods may be involved.
 difficult to assess the accuracy of the information-
unknown research design or the conditions under
which the research took place.
 Data could also be out of date.
219
 Sources of Secondary Data
 Secondary may be acquired from various
data sources:
 Department reports, production
financial and accounting summaries,
reports, marketing and
sales studies, books, periodicals, reference books
encyclopedia, university publications
dissertations, etc.), policy documents, statistical
(thesis,
compilations, research report, proceedings, personal
documents (historical studies) , etc.
 The Internet

220
 Primary Sources of Data
 Data that came into being by the people
directly involved in the research.
 Data collected afresh and for the first time happen to

be original in character.
 Qualitative and Quantitative data collection techniques
 There are two approaches to primary data collection:

 the qualitative approach and

 the quantitative approach

221
 Qualitative data collection approaches
 Qualitative data can be acquired from:
 case studies,
 rapid rural appraisal methods,
 focus group discussions and
 key informant interviews.
i) Case studies
 A case study research involves a
detailed investigation of a particular
case.
• Through Interviews (several forms of interviews-
open-ended, focused, or structured).
222
• Through Direct observation (field visits).
ii)Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
 RRA is a systematic but semi-structured activity
often by a multidisciplinary team.
 The techniques rely primarily on expert observation
coupled with semi-structured interviewing.
 The RRA method:
 takes only a short time to complete,

 tends to be relatively cheap, and

 make use of more 'informal' data collection

procedures.
 The techniques of RRA include:
 Interviews with individuals, households and key
informants
 Group interview techniques, including focus-group
interviewing, etc. 223
iii) Focus group discussions
 A FGD is a group discussion guided by a facilitator,
during which group members talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic.
 The group of individuals are expected to have
experience or opinion on the topic and selected
by the researcher.
 Its purpose is to obtain in-depth information on
concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group.
 It is more than a question-answer interaction.
 The idea is that group members discuss the
topic and interact among themselves with
guidance from the facilitator.
224
Wh y use focus groups?
 The main purpose of a focus group research is

to draw upon respondents’ attitudes, feelings,

beliefs, experiences and reactions which would
not be captured using other methods.
 attitudes, feelings and beliefs may likely be
revealed via the social gathering and the
interaction.
 Compared to individual interviews, which aim

to obtain individual attitudes, beliefs and

feelings, focus groups elicit a multiplicity of
views and emotional processes within a group
context.
225
 Strengths and limitations
 Provided the groups have been well chosen, in terms of
composition and number, FGDs can be a powerful research
tools which provide valuable information in a short period
of time and at relatively low cost.
 BUT, FGD should not be used for quantitative purposes, such
as the testing of hypotheses or the generalization of findings
for larger areas, which would require more elaborate surveys.
 It may be risky to use FGDs as a single tool.
 In group discussions, people tend to centre their opinions on
the most common ones.
 Therefore, it is advisable to combine FGDs with other
methods (in-depth interviews).
 In case of very sensitive topics group members may
hesitate to express their feelings and experiences
freely.
226
iv) Key Informant Interview
 The key informant interview technique is an
interviewing process for gathering information from
opinion leaders such as elected officials,
government officials, and business leaders, etc.
 This technique is particularly useful for:
 Raising community awareness about socio-economic
issues
 Learning minority viewpoints
 Gaining a deeper understanding of opinions and
perceptions, etc.

227
 v) Triangulation

 Triangulation refers to the use of more than one

approach to the investigation of a research question in
order to enhance confidence in the findings.
 The purpose of triangulation is to obtain confirmation of
findings through convergence of different perspectives.
 Why use triangulation?
 By combining multiple methods, and empirical materials,
researchers can hope to overcome the weakness or biases and
problems that are associated with a single method.

228
Types of Triangulation
 Data triangulation, which entails gathering data
through several sampling strategies at different
times and social situations.
 Investigator triangulation, which refers to the use
of more than one researcher in the field to gather
and interpret data.
 Theoretical triangulation, which refers to the use
of more than one theoretical proposition in
interpreting data.
 Methodological triangulation, which refers to the
use of more than one method for analyzing the
data.
229
 Quantitative Primary Data Collection Methods

 Primary data may be collected through:

 Direct personal observation method, or
 Survey or questioning other persons.
 The Observation Method
 Observation includes the full range of
monitoring behavioral and non-behavioral
activities.
 It is less demanding and has less bias.
 One can collect data at the time it occurs and need not
depend on reports by others.
 with this method one can capture the whole event as
it occurs. 230
 Weakness of the Method

 The observer normally must be at the scene of the event

when it takes place.
 But it is often difficult or impossible to predict when and
where an event will occur.
 Observation is also slow and expensive process. It
requires either human observers or some type of costly
surveillance equipment.
 Its most reliable results are restricted to data that can be
determined by an open or deliberate action or surface
indicator.
 Limited as a way to learn about the past, or difficult to
gather information on such topics as intensions, attitudes,
opinions and preferences.
231
The Survey Method
 The most common method

 To survey is to ask people questions in a

questionnaire (mailed or handed to people) or
during an interview and then record the answer.
 Surveys are used to generate data on
economic behavior, statistics, opinion polls,
etc.
 In a survey the unit of analysis is typically a
232
Strength of the Survey Method
 It is a versatile or flexible method - capable of many
different uses.
 It does not require that there be a visual or other
objective perception of the sought information by a
researcher.
 One can seldom learn much about opinion and
attitudes except by questioning.
 Surveys tend to be more efficient and economical
than observations.
 Information can be gathered by a few well-chosen
questions. For instance, surveying using telephone or
mail is less expensive.

233
 Weakness of the Method
 The quality of information secured depends heavily on
the ability and willingness of the respondents.
 A respondent may interpret questions or
concept differently from what was intended
by the researcher.
 A respondent may deliberately
mislead the researcher by giving false information.
 Surveys could be carried out through:
 Face to face personal interview
 By telephone interview
 By mail or e-mail, or
 By a combination of all these.
234
 Personal Face to face Interview
 It is a two-way conversion where the respondent is
asked to provide information.
Advantages:
 The depth and detail of the information that can be
secured far exceeds the information secured from
telephone or mail surveys.
 Interviewers can probe additional questions, gather
supplemental information through observation, etc.
 Interviewers can make adjustments to the language
of the interview because they can observe the
problems and effects with which the interviewer is
faced.
235
Limitations of the Method

 The method is an expensive enterprise.

 Interviewer may be reluctant to visit
unfamiliar neighborhoods.
 Biased results grow out of the three types of errors.
 Sampling error (discussed earlier)
 Non-response error
 Response error

236
 Non-repose error
 This error occurs when you are not able to find those whom
you are supposed to study.
 In probability samples there are pre-designated persons to
be interviewed.
 When one is forced to interview substitutes, an unknown
bias is introduced.
 Under such circumstances one of the following could
be
tried.
 The most reliable solution is to make callbacks.
 To treat all remaining non-respondents as a new
subpopulation and draw a random sample from the
subpopulation.
 To substitute someone else for the missing respondent if
the population is homogeneous. 237
 Response error
 Errors are made in the processing and tabulating
of data.
 Respondent may fail to report fully and accurately.
 Cheating by enumerators, usually with only limited
training and under little direct supervision.
 Enumerator can also distort the results of a survey by in-
appropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone of voice
and question rephrasing.
 Perceived social distance between enumerator and
respondent also has a distorting effect.

238
 Cost Considerations
 Interviewing is a costly exercise.
 Much of the cost from the substantial
results
enumerator time taken up with administrative and
travel tasks.
b) Telephone Interview
 Telephone can be a helpful medium of communication
in setting up interviews and screening large population
for rare respondent type.

239
Strength of this method
 Moderate travel and administrative costs
 Faster completion of the study
 Responses can be directly entered on to the computer
 Fewer interviewers’ bias.
Limitations of this method
 Respondents must be available by phone.
 The length of the interview period is short.
 Telephone interview can result in less complete
responses and that those interviewed by phone find the
experience to be less rewarding than a personal
interview.
240
C) Interviewing by Mail
 Self-administrated questionnaires may be
used in surveys.
Advantages
 Lower cost than personal interview
 Persons who might otherwise be
inaccessible can be contacted (major corporate
executives)
 Respondents can take more time to collect facts
Disadvantages
 Non response error is expected
 Large amount of information may not be acquired
241
Survey Instrument Design
 Actual instrument design begins by drafting
specific measurement questions.
 Both the subject and wording of each question are
important.
 The psychological order of the question needs to be
considered.
 Questions that are more interesting, easier to answer,
and less threatening usually are placed early in the
sequence to encourage response.

242
The main components of a questionnaire

 Identification data: respondent’s name, address,

time and date of interview, code of interviewer,
etc.
 Instruction: depends on type of survey and may
include skip questions
 Information sought: major portion of the
questionnaire
 Cover letter: brief purpose of the survey, who is
doing it, time involved, etc.

243
 Designing of a Questionnaire

 In developing a survey instrument the following

issues need to be considered carefully:
 Question content
 Question wording
 Response form
 Question sequence

244
1. Question Content
 Both questions and statements could be used in
survey research.
 Using both in a given questionnaire gives the
researcher more flexibility.
 Minimizing the number of questions is highly
desirable, but one should never try to ask
two questions in one.
 Question content usually depends on the
respondent’s:
 ability, and
 willingness to answer the question accurately.
245
 a) Is the question of proper scope?
 Respondent must be competent enough to answer the
questions.
 The respondent information level should be assessed
when determining the content and appropriateness of a
question.
 Questions that overtax the respondent’s recall ability
may not be appropriate.
b) Willingness of respondent to answer adequately
 Even if respondents have the information, they may be
unwilling to give it.
 Some topics are also too sensitive to discuss with
strangers.
 Examples: the most sensitive topics concern money matters
246
 If respondents consider a topic to be irrelevant and
uninteresting they would be reluctant to give an
adequate answer.
 Some of the main reasons for unwillingness:
 The situation is not appropriate for disclosing the
information
 Disclosure of information would be embarrassing
 Disclosure of information is a potential threat to the
respondent

247
Some approaches that may help to secure more
complete and truthful information

 Use an indirect statement i.e., “other people”

 Motivate respondent to provide appropriate
information.
 Change the design of the questioning
process.
 Apply appropriate questioning sequences that will
lead a respondent from „safe“ question gradually to
those that are more sensitive.
 Use methods other than questioning to secure the
data (observation).

248
2. Question Wording

a) Shared Vocabulary
 In a survey the two parties must understand each other
and this is possible only if the vocabulary used is
common to both parties. So, don’t use unfamiliar words
or abbreviations or ambiguous words.
b) Question Clarity
 Do not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined
words.

249
c) Personalization
 Finding the right degree of personalization may be a
challenge.
 Instead of asking „What would you do about ...?, it
is better to ask „what would people do about ...? „
d) Provision of adequate alternatives
 Asking a question that does not accommodate all
possible responses can confuse and frustrate the
respondent.
 Are adequate alternatives provided? It is wise to
express each alternative explicitly in order to avoid
bias. 250
3. Response structure or format

 A third major decision area is the degree and form of

the structure imposed on the responses.
 The options range from open (free choice of words) to
closed (specified alternatives).
a) Open Ended Questions
 An open-ended question (free response) question asks
questions to which respondents can give any answer.
 Open ended (free response) in turn range from
 those in which the respondents express
themselves extensively.
 Those in which the freedom is to choose one word in a “fill
in “ question. 251
Advantages
 Permit an unlimited number of possible answers
 Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify
and clarify responses
 Permit creativity self expression, etc.

Limitations
 Different respondents give different degree of details in
answers – responses may not be consistent.
 Some responses may be irrelevant
 Comparison and statistical analysis become very
difficult.
 Articulate and highly literature respondents have an
advantage
 Requires greater amount of respondent time,
effort. 252
 b) Closed Questions

 Although the open response question may have many

advantages closed questions are generally preferable in
large surveys.
 Closed questions are often categorized as dichotomous
or multiple-choice questions.
Advantages
 Easier and quicker for respondents to answer
 Easier to compare the answers of different respondents
 Easier to code and statistically analyze
 Are less costly to administer
 reduce the variability of responses
 make fewer demands on interviewer skill, etc.

253
 Limitations
 Can ideas that the respondents would not
otherwise have
suggest
 Respondents no opinion or no knowledge can
answer
with anyway
 Respondents can be confused because of too
many choices
 During the construction of closed ended questions:
 The response categories provided should be exhaustive.
 They should include all the possible
responses that might be expected.
 In multiple choice type questions, the answer categories
must be mutually exclusive.
 The respondent may not be compelled to select more
than one answer.

254
4) Question Sequence - order
 The order in which questions are asked can affect the
response as well as the overall data collection
activity.
 Transitions between questions should be smooth.
 Grouping questions that are similar will make the
questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent
will feel more comfortable.
 Questionnaires that jump from one topic to another are
not likely to produce high response rates.

255
Some guides to improve quality

 The question process must quickly awaken interest

and motivate the respondent to participate in the
interview by choosing early interview questions
that are attention getting and not controversial in
subject.
 The respondent should not be confronted by early
request for information that might be considered
too personal or threatening.
 The questioning process should move from simpler
questions to more complex ones.

256
 5) Physical Characteristics of a Questionnaire

 The format of a questionnaire is important as

the nature and wording of the questions asked.
 An improperly laid out questionnaire can
lead respondents to miss questions, can confuse them.
 The questionnaire should be spread out properly.
 Putting more than one question on a line will result in
some respondents skipping the second question.
 Abbreviating questions will result in misinterpretation
of the question.

257
 Formats for Responses
 A variety of methods are available for presenting a
series of response categories.
 Boxes
 Blank spaces
 Entering code numbers besides each response and
circle.
Providing Instructions
 Every questionnaire whether to be self administered
by the respondent or administered by an
interviewer should contain clear instructions.

258
 General instructions

 It is useful to a questionnaire with basic

begin
instructions to be followed in completing it.
 Introduction: If a questionnaire is arranged into
subsections it is useful to introduce each section with a
short statement concerning its content and purpose.
 Specific Instructions: Some questions may require
special instructions to facilitate proper answering.
 Interviewers instruction: It is important to provide
clear complementary instruction where appropriate to
the interviewer.
259
 6) Reproducing the questionnaire

 Having constructed questionnaire it is necessary

to provide enough copies for the actual data
collection.
 A neatly reproduced instrument will encourage
a higher response rate, thereby providing better
data.

260
 Data Processing and Analysis

 Data analysis ranges from very simple summary

statistics to extremely complex multivariate analyses.
Data Preparation and Presentation
 Data processing starts with the editing, coding,
classifying and tabulation of the collected data.
i) Editing
 Editing of data is the process of examining the collected
raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct
these when possible.
 Editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires.
261
 In general one edits to assure that the data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with other information/facts gathered
 Uniformly entered
 As complete as possible
 Arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation
 The editing can be done at two levels
 On the field and in the office.
a) Field level Editing
 After an interview, field workers should review their
reporting forms, complete what was abbreviated,
translate personal shorthand, rewrite illegible entries,
and make callback if necessary. 262
b) Central editing
 The central editing takes place when all forms have
been completed and returned to the office.
 Data editors correct obvious errors such as entry in
wrong place, recorded in wrong units, etc.
ii) Coding
 Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories or classes.
 Several thousands of replies or answers can be
reduced to a few categories, which contain the critical
information needed for analysis.
 Data are transcribed from a questionnaire to a coding
sheet. 263
 The coding must be:
 Appropriate, which implies that the classes or categories
must provide the best partitioning of data for testing
hypothesis and showing relationships.
 Exhaustive - there must be a class for every data item.
 Mutual exclusivity – category components should be
mutually exclusive meaning that specific answers can be
placed in one and only one cell in a given category set.

264
iii) Classification and Tabulation
 Once data are edited, and coded the data
presentation exercise begins.
 Most research studies result in a large volume of
raw data, which must be reduced into homogenous
groups if we are to get meaningful relationships.
 Classification is the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics.
 Data having common characteristics are placed in
similar classes and in this way the entire data get
divided into a number of groups or classes.

265
 Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying it in compact form (i.e. in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis.
 It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows.
 Tabulation may be done by hand or by mechanical or
electronic devices such as the computer.
 The choice is made largely on the basis of the size and type
of study, alternatives costs, time pressures and the
availability of computer facilities.
 In the case of computer tabulation computer programs
such as SPSS, Lotus, excel, STATA, etc. could be used.
266
 Tabulation provides the following advantages:
 It conserves space and reduces
explanatoryand
descriptive statement to a minimum.
 It facilitates the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of
errors and omissions
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations
such as measures of central tendencies, dispersions, etc.
 Tabulation may be classified as simple and complex.
 Simple tabulation gives information about one or more
groups of independent questions.
 Complex tabulation shows the division of data into two
or more categories. 267
 II) Data Analysis
 Large volume of raw statistical information need
to be reduced to more manageable dimensions if
one is to see meaningful relationships in it.
 Data analysis is the computation of certain indices

or measures.
It refers to the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of relationship
that exists among data group.
 Data can be analyzed qualitatively or quantitatively.

268
Quantitative data analysis
 Where the data are quantitative, there are some
determinants of the appropriate statistical tool for
analysis.
 Was the data collected using a random or non-

random sample?
 If it was non random then non-parametric data
analysis techniques are appropriate,
if random then parametric techniques are
appropriate.

269
 Were the samples dependent (related) or
independent?
 Samples are said to be dependent (related) when
the measurement taken from one sample affects
the measurement taken again from the same
sample.
 Samples are independent if the measurements
taken from one sample do not affect those from
another sample.

270
Parametric tests
 Has the data got characteristics, which can lead to
the application of parametric tests? i.e.
 Were observations drawn from a population
with normal distribution i.e. data normally
 distributed?
Does the of data being comparedhave
set equal variances (homogeneity of
approximately
 variances)?
Were the data measured on a ratio scale?

271
 Non-parametric tests (data is nominal or interval)

Question: is there a relationship between

variable that distinguishes the rows the
variable, which distinguishes the columns
and the
 Method: chi square test.
 Analysis can also be categorized as descriptive
analysis or inferential analysis (statistical analysis).
 With respect to the number of variables involved in the
analysis, it can also be divided into uni-variate
analysis and multivariate analysis.

272
Uni-variate Analysis
 Uni-variate analysis refers to the analysis with
respect to one variable.
 It is also called a one-dimensional analysis.
 The uni-variate analysis could either be presented
in the form of statistical measures such as measures
of central tendencies and measure of variations
or in the form of graphs.
 Graphical illustrations could also be used to
demonstrate the frequency distribution (histograms,
ogives, polygons, bar graphs, line graphs and
circular graphs or pie charts).

273
Descriptive Analysis
 The initial uni-variate analysis may be the
presentation of descriptive analysis in the form of
frequency distributions.
 Afrequency distribution provides a profile
different groups on any of a of
characteristics
multitude such as size, composition, efficiency,
of
or preferences of persons or other entities.
 The data in a frequency distribution can be used to
calculate a number of statistical indices, which
summarizes the results even further.
 Measures of central tendency are examples.

274
Multivariate Analysis
 Multivariate analysis involves the considerations
of two or more variables.
 It we have two variables then we have bi-variate
analysis but if we have more than two variables
then we have multivariate analysis.
 Several multivariate analyses could be undertaken
such as the construction of bi-variate tables or
multivariate analysis such as multiple regressions,
ANOVA, discriminant analysis, probit and logit
analyses, canonical analysis, etc.

275
 Summary chart concerning analysis of
data Analysis of Data
(in a broad general way can be categrised into)

Analysis of data
processing of data (analysis proper)
(Preparing data for
analysis)

Editing Coding Descriptive and causal analysis inferential analysis/statistical

Classification
Tabualation
Using percentages

uni-dimensional Bivariate Multi-varaite analysis Estimation of Testing

analysis (simultaneous analysis hypothesis
analysis parameter values
(analysis of more than twovaraibles
of or attributes in a
two multiway
Point interval
variables or
classification) estimation
attributes in estimation
a two way
calculation of classificatio
n parametric non paramteric
several measures Multiple regression
mostly concerning simple regression test test or
one varaible and correlation multiple distributio free
i. measures of central tendency discriminant analysis tests
Association
ii. measures of dispersion of attributes
iii. measures of skewness Multi -
iv. simple correlation ANOVA
Two way
v. one way ANOVA
ANOVA cannonical analysis

276
 Pitfalls in Data Analysis
 The problem with statistics
 Some aspects of statistical thoughts might lead
many people to be distrustful of it.
 Three broad classes of statistical pitfalls.
 The first involves sources of bias. These are conditions
or circumstances which affect the external validity of
statistical results.
 The second category is errors in methodology,
which can lead to inaccurate or invalid results.
 The third class of problems concerns interpretation
of results - how statistical results are applied (or
misapplied) to real world issues. 277
 1. Sources of Bias
 The core value of statistical methodology is its ability
to assist one in making inferences about a large group
(a population) based on observations of a smaller
subset of that group.
 In order for this to work correctly,
 the sample must be similar to the target population in all
relevant aspects (representative sampling);
 certain aspects of the measured variables must conform to
assumptions which underlie the statistical procedures to be
applied (statistical assumptions).

278
 Representative sampling
 This is one of the most fundamental tenets of inferential
statistics:
 the observed sample must be representative of the target
population in order for inferences to be valid.
 The ideal scenario would be where the sample
chosen by selecting members of the population is
random, with each member having an at
equal probability of being selected for the sample.
 The sample "parallels" the population with respect
to certain key characteristics
which are to thethought
important to at
investigation behand.
 the problem comes in applying this principle to real world
situations. 279
 Statistical assumptions.
 The validity of a statistical procedure depends on
certain assumptions it makes about various aspects of
the problem.
 For instance, linear methods depends on the
assumption of normality and independence.
 Unfortunately, this offers an almost irresistible temptation
to ignore any non-normality, no matter how bad the
situation is.
 If the distributions are non-normal, try to figure out
why; if it's due to a measurement artifact try to
develop a better measurement device.

280
  Another possible method for dealing with unusual
distributions is to apply a transformation.
 However, this has dangers as well; an ill-considered
transformation can do more harm than good in terms of
interpretability of results.
 The assumption regarding independence of observations is
more troublesome, because it is so frequently violated in
practice.
 Observations which are linked in some way may show some
dependencies.
 One way to try to get around this is to aggregate cases to
the higher level.
 Example: use households as the unit of analysis, rather than
281
individuals.
 2. Errors in methodology
 The most common hazards include designing experiments
with insufficient power, ignoring measurement error, and
performing multiple comparisons.
 Statistical Power. The power of your test generally depends
on the sample size, the effect size you want to be able to
detect, the alpha you specify, and the variability of the
sample.
 Based on these parameters, you can calculate the power level of
your experiment.
 Similarly you can specify the power you desire (e.g. .80), the
alpha level, and use the power equation to determine the
proper sample size for your experiment.

282
 If you have too little power, you run the risk of overlooking
the effect you're trying to find.
 If your sample is too large, nearly any difference, no matter
how small or meaningless from a practical standpoint, will
be "statistically significant".
 Measurement error. Most statistical models assume error
free measurement.
 However, measurements are seldom if ever perfect.
 Particularly when dealing with noisy data such as
questionnaire responses or processes which are difficult to
measure precisely, we need to pay close attention to the
effects of measurement errors.
 Two characteristics of measurement reliability and 283
validity.
 Reliability refers to the ability of a measurement
instrument to measure the same thing each time it
is used.
 So, a reliable measure should give you similar
results.
 If the characteristic being measured is stable over
time, repeated measurement of the same unit should
yield consistent results.
 Validity is the extent to which the indicator
measures the thing it was designed to measure.
 Validity is usually measured in relation to some
external criterion. 284
 3. Problems with interpretation
 There are a number of difficulties which can arise in the
context of interpretation.
 Confusion over significance. the difference between
"significance" in the statistical sense and "significance" in
the practical sense continues to elude many consumers
of statistical results.
 Significance (in the statistical sense) is really a function
of sample size and experimental design and shows the
strength of the relationship.
 With low power, you may be overlooking a really
useful relationship; with excessive power, you may be
finding microscopic effects with no real practical value.
285
 Precision and Accuracy. These two concepts often
get confused.
 precision refers to how finely an estimate is
specified, whereas accuracy refers to how close an
estimate is to the true value.
 Estimates can be precise without being accurate.
 Causality: assessing causality is the most important
function of most statistical analysis.
 For causal inference you must have random
assignment.
 Many of the things we might wish to study
are not to experimental manipulation.
subject 286
 Hence, it will require a multifaceted approach to
the research to come to any strong conclusions
regarding causality:
 use of chronologically structured designs (placing
variables in the roles of antecedents and
consequents),
 Use several replications.
 Graphical Representations. There are many ways
to present quantitative results numerically, and it
is easy to go astray by misapplying graphical
techniques.
287
 Multiple Variables and Confounds

 It would make our life simpler if every effect

variable had only one cause, and it co-varied only
with one other variable.
 Unfortunately, this is hardly ever the case.
 If we have a number of interrelated variables, then it
becomes difficult to sort out how variables affect
each other.
 It is easy to confuse one cause with another, or to
attribute all changes to a single cause when many
causal factors are operating.
288
 Having multiple variables related to each other obscures
the nature of covariance relationships.
 if we observe covariance between two variables, we must
question whether they co-vary because of some real
relationship between them, or whether the covariance is
merely due to the spurious effect of a third confounding
variable.
 The process of determining whether a relationship exists
between two variables requires first that we establish
covariance between two variables.
 In addition to verifying that the two variables change in
predictable, non-random patterns, we must also be able to
discount any other variable or variables as sources of the
change. 289
  To establish a true relationship, we must be able to
confidently state that we observed the relationship under
conditions which eliminated the effects of any other variables.
 Failure to properly control for confounding variables is
a common error.
 We must take steps to control all confounding
variables, so that we can avoid making misestimates of
the size of relationships, or even draw the wrong
conclusions from our observations.

290
 Controlling for Confounding Variables
 We can first organize the universe of variables and
reduce them by classifying every variable into one of
two categories: Relevant or Irrelevant to the
phenomenon being investigated.
 The relevant variables are those which are important to
understand the phenomenon, or those for which a
reasonable case can be made.
 Example: if the literature tells us that Consumption Expenditure
is associated with income, then we will consider income to be
a relevant variable.

291
 If we have not included the relevant variable in our
analysis it can be because of different reasons.
 One reason we might choose to exclude a variable is
because we consider it to be irrelevant to the
phenomenon we are investigating.
 If we classify a variable as irrelevant, it means that it
has no systematic effect on any of the variables
included.
 Irrelevant variables require no form of control, as they
are not systematically related to any of the variables in
our model, so they will not introduce any influence.

292
 Two basic reasons why relevant variables might be
excluded:
 First, the variables might be unknown.
 We might have overlooked some relevant variables, but the
fact that we have missed these variables does not mean that
they have no effect.
 Another reason for excluding relevant variables is
because they are simply not of interest.
 Although the researcher knows that the variable
affects the phenomenon being studied, he does not
want to include its effect in the model.
293
 Finally, there remain two kinds of variables which
are explicitly included in our hypothesis tests.
 The first are the relevant, interesting variables which are
directly involved in our hypothesis test.
 The second is called a control variable.
 The control variable is included because it affects
the relevant variables and we need to remove or
control for its effect.

294
 Internal and External Validity
 Knowing what variables you need to control for is
important, but even more important is the way you
control for them.
 Several ways of controlling variables exist.
 Internal validity is the degree to which we
can be sure that no confounding variables have
obscured the true relationship between the
variables in the hypothesis test.
 It is the confidence that we can put on the assertion
that the independent variables actually produce the
effects that we observe.
295
 External validity describes our ability to generalize
from the results of a research study to the real world.
 Unfortunately although controlling for the effect of
confounding variables increases internal validity it
often reduces external validity.
Methods for Controlling Confounding Variables
 The effects of confounding variables can be controlled
with three basic methods: manipulated control, statistical
control, and randomization.
 Internal validity, external validity, and the amount of
information that can be obtained about confounding
variables differs for each of these methods.
296
Manipulated Control
 Manipulated control essentially changes a variable into a
constant.
 We eliminate the effect of a confounding variable by not
allowing it to vary. If it cannot vary, it cannot produce
any change in the other variables.
 If we can hold all confounding variables constant, we
can be confident that any difference observed between
two groups is indeed due to the explanatory variable
and not due to the other variables.
 This gives us high internal validity.
 So, Manipulated control prevents the controlled
variables from having any effect on the dependent
variable. 297
 Statistical Control
 With this method of control, we include the confounding
variable into the research design as an additional measured
variable, rather than forcing its value to be a constant.
 So, we will be considering with three (or more) variables
and not two: the independent and dependent variables,
plus the confounding (or control) variable or variables.
 The effect of the control variable is mathematically removed
from the effect of the independent variable, but the control
variable is allowed to vary naturally.
 This process yields additional information about the
relationship between the control variable and the other
variables.
298
 In addition to the additional information about the
confounding variables that statistical control
provides, it also has some real advantages over
manipulated control.
 External validity is improved, because the confounding
variables are allowed to vary naturally, as they would
in the real world.
 But, internal validity is not compromised to achieve this
advantage.

299
 In general, statistical control provides us with much
more information about the problem we are
researching than does manipulated control.
 But advantages in one area usually have a cost in
another, and this is no exception.
 An obvious drawback of the method lies in the increased
complexity of the measurement and statistical analysis
which will result from the introduction of larger
numbers of variables.

300
 Randomization
 The third method of controlling for confounding
variables is to randomly assign the units of analysis
(experimental subjects) to experimental groups or
conditions.
 The rationale for this approach is straightforward: any
confounding variable will have its effects spread
evenly across all groups, and so it will not produce
any consistent effect that can be confused with the
effect of the independent variable.
 This is not to say that the confounding variables
produce no effects in the dependent variable—they do.
301
 But the effects are approximately equal for all groups, so the
confounding variables produce no systematic effects on the
dependent variable.
 The major advantage of randomization is that we can
assume that all confounding variables have been controlled.
 Even if we fail to identify all the confounding variables, we
will still control for their effects.
 As these confounding variables are to vary
allowed naturally, as they would in the real
world.
 External validity is high for this method of
control.
302
 Since we don’t actually measure the confounding
variables, we assume that randomization produces
identical effects from all confounding variables in all
groups, and that removes any systematic confounding
effects of these variables.
 But any random process may result in
disproportionate outcomes occasionally.
 Example: If we flip a coin 100 times, we will not always
see exactly 50 heads and 50 tails.
 Sometimes we will get 60 heads and 40 tails, or even 70
tails and 30 heads.

303
 Consequently, have no way of knowing with
absolute
we certainty the randomization control
procedure has actuallythat distributed identically the
effects of all confounding variables.
 We are only trusting that it did.
 But, with manipulated control and statistical control,
we can be completely confident that the effects of the
confounding variables have been distributed so that no
systematic influence can occur,because wecan
measure the effects of the confounding variable
directly.
 There is no chance involved.
304
 A further disadvantage of randomization is that it
produces very little information about the action of any
confounding variables.
• We assume that we have controlled for any effects of
these variables, but we don’t know what the variables
are, or the size of their effects, if, there are any.
• we assume that we’ve eliminated the systematic effects of
the confounding variables by insuring that these effects
are distributed across all values of the relevant variables.
• But we have not actually measured or removed these
effects—the confounding variables will still produce
change in the relevant variables.
305
Guide to Research Report writing
 Parts/sections of Research Report
Report Parts

Preliminaries Body Reference Appended

Data collection
Title page I. Introduction IV. Results & V. Conclusion &
formats
Recommendation
Discussion 1. Conclusion
4.1. title General
Acknowledgement 2. Recommendat
II. Literature related to Tables
ion
review objective 1.

Table of 4.2. title

contents III. Methodology General
related to
objective 2 Maps &
Figures
List of Tables 4.3. title
related to
objective 3.
List of figures
Etc. if
any
Abstract
 The Preliminary
• The preliminary matter of the research report is all
introductory nature which precedes the actual text
of the study
•It includes:
- The title page
- a page for acknowledgement
- Page(s) for the table of contents
• Page(s) for the list of tables (if Tables are in the
text)
• Page(s) for the list of figures (if Figures are in
the text) and
• The abstract
Title page
• Title page should contain:
• Title of the study,
• What the document is and for whom it is
reported,
• The rationale for the document and its function,
• The Author’s name
• Date of the document completed
• Place where the document is completed
Acknowledgement
• It has to include thanks or a brief statement of
acknowledgements by the researcher to
institution and/or people for their provision of
academic, administrative and/or financial
support.
Table of contents
• The table of contents provides reader a bird’s-eye-
view of the report
– It gives information on what the
document contents and its organizational
structure
–
• List of Tables
• If tables are presented in the research report, a separate page
should be included (following table of contents) to display
the list of tables that are in the text.
• This list includes full title (caption) of tables with their
corresponding numbers and page number.
• List of Figures
• If figures are presented in the research report, a separate page
should be included (following the list of Tables) to display
the list of Figures that are in the text.
• This list includes full title (caption) of Figures with their
corresponding numbers and page number.
 Abstract
• In this section a brief information about:
– Statement of the problem,
– Objectives of the study,
– Methods and procedures of data collection
and analysis
– Results and discussion and
– Conclusions are given.
• This section is the most widely referred part of
the research report, because:
• It briefly gives all the information presented in
the report.
• Many readers scan this section of the report
first to get an overview of the study to
determine its importance to them.
• Abstract serves as synopsis that gives
information to the reader to judge whether
he/she wishes to read the complete research
report.
• Usually it ends up in one page. Sometimes for
big reports it may be as big as 1-2 pages
Main Body
1. Introduction
1. Back ground and rationale
2. Statement of the Problem
3. Objectives of the study
4. Research hypotheses/Question
1.5. Significance of the study
1.6 Delimitation /scope/ of the study
• Update the objectives that you had in your
proposal
1.4 Research hypotheses/Question
1.5. Significance of the study
1.6 Delimitation /scope/ of the study
• Update the objectives that you had in your proposal
1.7. Limitation of the study
• All research reports are not complete in
everything.
• The incompleteness may be due to:
– Sampling errors: Such as failure of respondent
to complete and return back questionnaire, or
–
 • shortage of time,
• financial problem,
• Any other reason that the researcher expect
to affect the quality of the research report
• The effect of such problems on the quality of
the research report should be specified.

II. Review of related Literature

III. Research Methodology
• Update the proposal chapter for this report
 4. Results and Discussions
• This section represents the heart of the research report.
• This chapter should be divided into different sections
• Commonly, this chapter is schematized following the
outline of the objectives of the study
– In order to facilitate an easy of discussion and then to
obtain the desired specific objectives of the study
• In this chapter the collected data should be organized into
sections corresponding to a particular objective of the
research
• In this chapter the collected data should be organized into
sections corresponding to a particular objective of the
research
• The data may be organized and summarized into:
• Tables
• Figures (charts, maps, slides, photos) or
• other statistical presentation
• The data summarized and represented by tables and figures
should be discussed.
• The discussion in this section should be related to the
literature described in the review of related literature
section.
• The discussion should be related to the hypothesis/question
if any hypothesis/question is mentioned
Table
s• Number of tables
• All Tables including those that appear in the appendix
should be numbered:
• continuously throughout the report or
• by each chapter to permit their easy identification by
the reader.
• use Arabic numerals
• The word “Table” should be followed by its number.
Caption of Tables
– Every table should be given a title or heading
– The title of the table should be a concise summary of
what is presented in the Table
– The number and title of each table should appear above
each table
– Each table should follow as closely as possible to its first
mention in the text
– Short tables should be included in the text
– If a table is more than half a page, it should be placed and
centered on a separate page
– Long and detailed tables usually put in the appendix
• Figures
• Any other types of illustrative materials, for example:
• Graphs,
• Line drawings,
• Charts,
• Photographs or maps should be labeled Figure or
abbreviated Fig.
Number of Figures
•Should be numbered with Arabic Numerals
•Should be numbered:
• continuously throughout the report or
•by each chapter to permit their easy identification
• Caption of Figures
– Title or caption of a figure should be given directly below
the illustration flush with the left margin
 5 Conclusion and
Recommendations Conclusion
• This chapter is the closing section of the
body/report
• In this section:
– a brief description of:
• statement of the problem,
• overall objective
• methods and procedures of data collection
and analysis used should be presented in one
paragraph
– The research findings should be synchronize
to already designed objectives sequentially in
logical and systematic framework to arrive on
conclusion.
– The conclusions given should be entirely
supported by the facts presented in the
preceding chapter
– If any hypothesis/question, the researcher should
state whether it has been supported or rejected
by collected data/information.
 Recommendation
• Finally, suggest recommendation for practical
application to correct or tackle the studied
problem.
• The recommendations should be supported by
the research finding and the conclusion given in
the preceding sub-chapter
• References
• In a research report one has to indicate from
where he finds whatever information:
• Data, opinion or quotations should be
acknowledged the sources in a list of references
• The list of reference section should contain:
– all the works that the researcher has cited in
the text.
– references that are not cited in the text should
not be listed in the reference list
Placement
• The list of references (works cited) should
appear following the main body of the report.
• This section appears on a new page
The Heading “References”
•Should be centered at the top of the page
•Begin each entry flush with the left margin and if it
runs more than one line, indent the subsequent
lines five spaces from the left.
• Arrangements
• Alphabetize entries in the list of references by the
Author’s last name of the first author (for all none
Ethiopian) and by author's first name if the author
is an Ethiopian.
• If the material cited has no Author, alphabetize by the title
or institution name that is printed on the cover of the
document.
• If more than one material written by the same author(s) are
cited, order them in descending order of their publication
year (More recent publication first to the older).
• Appendix
• This is the final section of the report
• It may contain
– Extensive tables, maps or figures
– Samples of data collection instruments
– And other information/data the researcher thinks
important
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