Acoustic:

Methods and Interpretation

Seftiawan Samsu Rijal
MK. Akustik Kelautan
 • Speed of sound of thunder and lightening (Ibn Hazm
of Cordoba)
• Daniel Colladon 1826 – 1893
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPwHqKiBC-Q

Dr. Harvey Hayes invented the Sonic Depth Finder in 1919. His instrument consisted of
(1) a transmitter to generate and send sound waves to the ocean floor,
(2) a receiver to detect the reflected waves, and
(3) a timer calibrated at the speed of sound in seawater that directly indicated water depth.
SINGLE BEAM ECHOSOUNDER
With single beam echosounders, the sound is transmitted
straight down in a focused beam, typically a 3-20°
cone. This yields a single depth measurement from
somewhere inside the cone. Taken in a continuous string, a
single beam echosounder produces a seafloor profile like that
shown here.

One misconception about single beam echosounders is that

they somehow record the average depth within the area of the
cone on the seafloor. Actually, the first sound return for
each "ping" is used as the depth. Therefore, the shallowest
depth within the cone is recorded. In areas with a rough
seafloor and/or large relief, this means that the "least depth"
within the cone of transmitted sound is recorded, not the
average depth.
Single beam echosounders are ideal for shallow water
because they are much less expensive and less
complicated than multibeam sonar systems. However,
they have the major disadvantage of potentially missing
features on the seafloor that are between the lines being run.
• The raw data recorded for single beam echosounder
measurements consist of the time it takes for a sound pulse to
travel to the seafloor and return (the 2-way travel time),
• By assuming a fixed velocity at which sound travels through
seawater, this time can be used to compute the "Observed
Depth“. In reality, unless seas are extremely calm, vessels move
up and down over the waves (called heave) and this movement
needs to be removed to obtain an accurate "Observed Depth“,
• receiver and the sonar transmitter/receiver that needs to be applied. A time
Because the sound speed is not constant throughout the water
column, a correction needs to be determined and applied to each
"Observed Depth". The "sound velocity profile" is typically
measured with a sound velocimeter, which is lowered through the
water column, or calculated from a temperature/salinity profile.
• Next, a correction is needed to account for the fact that the echo sounder
transducer is below, not at the water's surface. While at rest, this difference is
referred to as draft. However, a vessel's draft changes as it moves through the
water. This phenomenon is called settlement and squat,
• Combined, the static draft, settlement, and squat are called dynamic draft and
this varies with the speed of the vessel through the water.
• Positioning also has corrections. There is a horizontal offset between the GPS
delay exists between the arrival of the GPS signal and the recording of the
position, generally fractions of a second. Because the vessel is moving, the
recorded position needs to be corrected for the time delay.
• Finally, a correction needs to be made to take into account the rise and fall of the
tide.
MULTI BEAM ECHOSOUNDER Multibeam echosounders use many narrow, focused
beams (16-1400) to map a swath of seafloor. Each
beam returns one depth measurement. The width of
the swath can equal from 2 to more than 5 times
the water depth. This width depends on many
factors including the frequency of the beams, the
configuration of the transmitting and receiving
transducers, the water depth, and the sound
velocity profile in the water column.

Multibeam echosounders are most efficient in deep

water because of the wide area of coverage which
increases with depth. In shallow water, many more
survey lines must be run to cover the same area.
One complication of multibeam echosounders is that
they produce vast quantities of data and thus
require specialized computer systems and software
to collect and analyze that data. Despite these
challenges, multibeam echosounders are used for
most hydrographic surveys when conditions are
applicable.
The corrections applied to multibeam echo sounder data are somewhat the same as those applied to single beam data. However,
due to the fan-shaped beam, some of the corrections are more complicated.

For single beam echo sounders, one beam is pointed down nearly vertically so vessel orientation is not critical and all corrections due
to vessel motion can be corrected by applying appropriate correctors for heave, settlement, and squat. For multibeam, the
equipment used to measure vessel motion is called a Heave-Roll-Pitch (HRP) sensor and it is placed as close as possible to the
vessel's center of motion and oriented along the ship's keel.

Measurements are then made to determine the position of the multibeam sonar and GPS receiver relative to the position of the HRP
sensor. These "offsets" are applied during data acquisition to properly orient all of the sensor measurements. Measurements from
the HRP sensor are used to determine the correct position for each and every sounding in the multibeam fan. This graphic shows an
example of how irregular the multibeam path can be with heave, roll, and pitch.
The determination of the sound velocity profile is much more critical for multibeam systems because of
the fact that most of the beams are not vertical – they fan out across a wide range of angles. The non-
vertical beams that pass through the water are bent or "refracted" due to the changing velocity of
sound in the water column, which if uncorrected, would yield incorrect depths and positions.

The sound velocity profile can vary significantly over short times and distances, particularly in shallow
water. These variations result from several causes, including daily heating and cooling, surface runoff
from nearby land, and cold or warm ocean currents. As a result, sound velocity profiles must be
determined frequently throughout hydrographic surveys.
Data from multibeam echosounders can be
processed to produce a high-resolution map
with sometimes stunning detail, as we can
see in the three-dimensional images of
wrecks in this slide show.
Side-scan SONAR
Side-scan sonar is similar to multibeam
echosounding in that it covers a swath of the
seafloor, except that a time-series of the
strength of the return signal is measured, not
the time of the first return. Hence, side-scan
cannot measure depth but rather returns a
grayscale image showing objects and shadows
not unlike a photograph. In addition, the sound
waves are usually transmitted and received
from a "fish" towed close to the seafloor, like
the one shown here, although they may be
hull-mounted in shallow water.
Towing the fish closer to the seafloor allows a
different perspective when surveying: one from
near the seafloor that allows more of a side-
ways profile.
Side-scan sonar is used to locate and identify underwater features, such as wrecks, rocks, and other
objects. For example, this side-scan image shows a submerged bridge at the bottom of a flooded
reservoir.
As previously mentioned, side-scan sonar can not accurately measure depth. The correct position and
orientation of the fish is not well known due to several variables, including the length of cable out,
bends in the cable, and pitch and roll of the towfish. However, the position can be approximated as
shown in this diagram.
Interpreting Side-scan SONAR Images

While we tend to look at side-scan sonar images as pictures of the

This image shows the wreckage of the
seafloor, what are we really looking at? As this schematic diagram U.S.S. Monitor, the famous civil war
shows , ridges and projections on the seafloor reflect more sound
energy resulting in a brighter color. These features also leave a
era "iron-clad" ship. Where do you
shadow zone which no sound energy reaches, so none can think that towfish was located with
return. Knowing the height of the towfish above the seafloor and the
length of the shadow, one can approximate the height of the object
respect to the image?
above the seafloor.
Interpreting Side-scan SONAR Images Normal Photography Image

This image shows sand ripples

on the seafloor and illustrates
one way in which side-scan
sonar can be used to infer the
bottom type in hydrographic
surveys. Reefs, boulders, and
other bathymetric features can
also be picked out of side-scan
sonar images.
Side-scan SONAR and Multibeam

• Side-scan and multibeam sonar share many

similarities. They both broadcast a wide sound
beam that maps a swath of seafloor.
• Multibeam, because it divides echoes into
individual beams, can accurately map depths.
• Side-scan, on the other hand, is much closer to
the seafloor, and so it can produce images with
much higher resolution that show much more
detail.
• This detail can allow us to identify seafloor
features that might remain ambiguous with
multibeam alone.
Non Acoustic Methods

LIDAR stands for (Light Detection and Ranging). Instead of using sound, like sonar, LIDAR uses lasers
to find distance. Aircraft are used to conduct LIDAR surveys. LIDAR is used extensively for
topographic mapping on land. When used in hydrographic surveys, two different color
lasers are used: green and red. The red laser reflects off of the water surface, while the
green laser penetrates water and reflects off of the seafloor. The green laser can penetrate
water up to a maximum of about 70 meters, depending on the water clarity.
The time difference between the two can be used to compute depth. The LIDAR scans in an arc
in front of the aircraft by reflecting the lasers off a moving mirror resulting in a broad swath as the
aircraft flies along. With an accurate position for the aircraft, the result is a bathymetric map that can
be combined with topographic LIDAR data to span the littoral zone.
Non Acoustic Methods

Altimeters aboard satellites can be used for general bathymetric mapping

in deep water. Because of variation in the strength of gravity, the water's
surface mounds over features like seamounts and forms a trough over
deep-sea trenches. And while this satellite-derived bathymetry is not
accurate enough for nautical charting in shallow water, it is useful in
determining the general shape of the deep ocean.
Thank You!