FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY-Part 1

Fluvial processes
• As with most geomorphic processes, Rivers
operate as a function of a dynamic equilibrium
between
- Driving forces and Resisting forces
• Driving Forces include
- Gravity
• Resisting Forces include
- Geology
> rock type, topography
- Friction
> channel shape, particle size of channel
 The Drainage Basin or River
Catchment
• The total area drained by a river
system is known as the
drainage basin (DB)
• One DB is separated from the
next by a “divide”
• There is considerable variation
in the patterns of DB as a
consequence of prevailing
physiographic conditions
 Drainage Basin patterns

• Dendritic
• Parallel
• Trellis
• Rectangular
• Radial
• Annular
 Evolution of DB
• Much studied aspect of geomorphology

• Initial theory proposed by Davis – later

modified for semi-arid to arid conditions by
King:
Geomorphologically, rivers are highly systematic and
conform to a clear developmental pattern.
The Davisian cycle of youth,,maturity and old age…….

Biophysical Environments in southern Africa

For these regions King’s Equilibrium theory is thought to be
more appropriate…

Initial

Old age

youthful

Biophysical Environments in southern Africa

At what stage is channel
flow initiated:
• When the major stores –
– Interception;
– Depression storage
– Soil & GW storage have been satisfied
• Then water arrives at the channel
by a variety of routes along
which flow rates differ:
CHANNEL FLOW
• Measured as DISCHARGE (Q) & =
• The VOLUME of water (m3) passing a
given channel cross section (m2) during a
specified time (s):

• Q = X-Sectional Channel Area x Flow

Rate
• Q = Av (units = m3s-1)
 Slope Hydrology
• Once the initial landscape has been
dissected by flowing water into distinct
river catchments or DBs the distinguishing
landforms are hills and valleys of varying
sizes and shapes defined by numerous unit
slopes.

• Slopes therefore form the basic

morphological unit of any river catchment
and a logical unit of study to understand DB
hydrology
 Slope hydrology
• Rain is first intercepted by vegetation
before striking the surface

• Interception losses vary depending on

meteorological factors, vegetation type,
land use and seasonality

• During the course of a storm, veg become

saturated, then all rain passes to the ground
 Streamflow
• Flow in rivers comes from precipitation.
• Some of this precipitation contributes
directly to river flow – some becomes
temporarily stored as ground water
• During periods of low/no rainfall, most
rivers continue to flow as water from the
groundwater store contributes to flow
• This contribution gradually depletes and
water levels in rivers declines
The Hydrograph: Quick review
• Plot of Q as a function of time
• Usually incorporates a precipitation
histogram

• During dry seasons, the hydrograph shows

an exponential decline in Q
• During this time, Q is supplied entirely
from BASEFLOW
• The water table consequently progressively
drops – hence the river Q declines
accordingly
• This gradual decline of the baseflow and Q
in streams is recorded as BASEFLOW
RECESSION on the hydrograph
• If there is no replenishment of GW, it may
drop below the stream bed – and the stream
runs dry
• However, if there is rainfall prior to stream
running dry – then the hydrograph will
show an increase in Q shortly after rainfall
begins
• The length of time between max. rainfall
and max. Q = the LAG TIME
• This is related to a number of factors such
as catchment characteristics; antecedent
moisture content; rainfall character and
human impacts
• The area under the curve is reflective of the
volume of Q as a consequence of the
rainfall event/s
• Rising limb = the part of the curve depicting
the increasing Q following rainfall
• The Recession limb = the gradual drop in Q
after the rainfall and peak Q.
– this is also controlled by gradual depletion of
water temporarily stored in the system
• A storm occurrence after a lengthy period of
no rainfall will result in a marked increase
in streamflow
• However, the peak flow in rivers occurs
after and is not coincident with peak
rainfall
• The lag time between the two events is a
function of the prevalent catchment
characteristics and the prevailing
meteorological conditions
• How are the peak flows caused?
• As precipitation falls on the slope, water is
absorbed into the soil – infiltration
• The rate at which this happens is dependant
on several factors:
– Soil texture and structure
– Vegetation
– Antecedent soil moisture content
– Surface sealing
– Rainfall intensity
• Initially infiltration rates are rapid but as the
storm progresses, the soil becomes saturated
and the infiltration rate reaches a low,
steady rate
• At any time, if the rainfall intensity
exceeds the infiltration capacity, runoff
(water flowing on the soil surface) occurs
• Generally this situation occurs in arid areas
where flash flooding generates surface
runoff on thin, poorly developed soils and is
called Hortonian Overland Flow (HOF)
• The velocity of this flow = 10 – >500 m/hr
• Thus HOF is considered the primary
determinant of peak flows in arid area rivers
following a storm event
• HOF traverses the surface as a shallow
sheet or in narrow linear surface channels
called rills
• HOF is considered common on arid zone
slopes having limited soil development and
sparse vegetation
• Uncommon in humid-temperate regions
 Slope hydrology in humid areas
• A major flaw in Horton’s model
was the claim that infiltrated
water moves directly down due to
gravity
• Research has shown a lateral
component to subsurface
flow
• The B- and C- horizons of soils
have lower permeability than the
A.
• B horizon has > clay content
• Percolating water is therefore diverted
laterally upon encountering the B horizon
• Water therefore flows parallel to the barrier as
interflow or throughflow.
• Where no such barrier exists, percolating
water will reach and contribute to ground
water, causing an elevation of the water table
• Even where low permeability layers exist,
after long duration rainfalls and saturating the
A-horizon, water does percolate through to
ground water
• Elevation of the water table is more
pronounced adjacent to the channel where
antecedent moisture is greatest
• This causes accelerated GW flow
• The combination of throughflow and
accelerated GW flow is called subsurface
stormflow (SSS)
• SSS produces runoff in the form of bank
seepage in the early part of the storm
• Still, SSS is considered a minor contributor
to peak discharges of rivers following
storms
• This is because measured rates of SSS range
between 0.003 – 1.0 cm/hr
• So, what causes peak discharges?
• Detailed studies showed that the level of the
water table near the stream channel actually
reaches the surface
• This means that the completely saturated
area alongside the river is considerably
enlarged and contributes water directly to
the river much like a saturated sponge
• Also, zones of throughflow in low-lying
parts of the catchment become saturated to
the surface causing infiltrated water to be
returned to the surface as return flow (RF)
• RF is actually a form of OLF but is
different
from HOF
• The velocity of RF is greater than SSS at 3
– 15 cm/sec
• The combination of RF and direct
precipitation on enlarged saturated zones is
called saturated overland flow and is the