FOOD502

Fruit & Vegetables

A/Prof. Michelle Yoo

1
 Learning objectives
• Nutritional value of fruit & veges
• Structural components of fruit & veges
• Ripening of fruit
• Post-harvest changes in fruit
• Browning of fruit & veges
• Processing of fruit & veges
• Chilling and freezing injury of fruit & veges
 Fruits Classification
 Type of fruit is determined by the type of flower
 Simple – Develop from 1 flower
 Drupes – Fruit w/ seeds encased in a pit
– Apricots, cherries, peaches, plums
 Pomes – Fruit w/ seeds in a central core
– Apples, pears
 Aggregate – Develop from several ovaries in one flower
 Blackberries, raspberries, strawberries
 Multiple – Develop from a cluster of several flowers
 Pineapples, figs
 Pseudocarps: apples & pears

• Greater part of the pulp is

formed from the hollow
receptacle of the flowers (not
ovary)

• Core & pips = original ovary

Ovary: contains ovules

Ovule: After fertilization, ovule

develops as a seed

Ovary containing the seeds

increases in size,
• Modified in structure;
• Its wall becomes pericarp
 Exceptions

– Tomatoes are fruits

• Botanically it is fruit
– Nuts are fruits
• Nuts are seeds instead of fleshy fruit
• Grouped separately
– Rhubarb
• Is a vegetable, but treated as a fruit

http://crescentok.com/staff/jaskew/ISR/botzo/class12.htm
Nutritional value of fruit
 Composition of Fruits & Vegetables
Water 80 - 90%
Protein < 3.5%
Mostly enzymes (pectinases, cellulases, amylases,
lipoxygenase, etc) and free amino acids
In fruits: 50% nitrogen compounds are free AAs
In vegetables: 30-80% nitrogen compounds are proteins

CHO Relatively high in CHO and fibre (3 - 20%)

Sugar, starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectic substance
Fruits: high in sugar (glucose, fructose, sucrose)
low in starch (exception: banana)
Vegetables: low in sugar (exception : sweet corn)
high in starch (potato, cereal grains, legumes)

Lipid 0.1 - 0.5%, major phospholipids & glycolipids

Exception: avocados & olives about 15% fat 7
 Composition of Fruits & Vegetables

Vitamin In general, vegetables contain more vitamins (B

and C) and minerals than fruits.
Citrus fruit - high in vit C.
Dark green leafy veg: vit C, riboflavin, β-carotene
Green veges: Vit K and folate

Mineral K, P, Mg, Ca, Fe, S

Fruits: low in Ca, P and not good source of Fe
Dark green leafy vegetables: Ca, Fe

Organic acid Malic, citric, tartaric, oxalic, benzoic acids

Phenolic Colours and taste (tannins)
compounds
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 How is quality determined?

• Soluble solids (TSS)

• Acidity
• Brix/acid ratio
• Color
• Low level of bitter compounds
• Flavor
What’s inside a fruit?
 What’s inside a fruit?
1. Organic acids
 Volatile & non-volatile
2. Pectic substances
 3 types – Protopectin, pectin, pectic acid
3. Phenolic compounds
 Also known as tannins
 1. Organic Acids
 Volatile – Vaporize during heating
 Non-volatile – Do not vaporize; leach out
when cooked in water
 Common acids…
 Citric – In citrus fruits & tomatoes
 Malic – In apples, apricots, cherries, peaches, pears,
strawberries
 Tartaric – In grapes
 Oxalic – Rhubarb, spinach
 Benzoic – In cranberries
 Acidity of Fruits
 Acids cause most fruits to have a pH value
below 5.0
 Tartness related to acidic content
 Lemons, limes, cranberries
 Have lowest pH (2.0)
 Least acidic fruits
 More bland & sweet
 Those with pH above 4.5
 Most often serve as vegetables
 2. Pectic Substances
 Polysaccharides found in fruit
 Cell cement; partially responsible for firmness &
structure
 Protopectin – Large, insoluble molecule in young fruit;
enzymes transform into pectin as fruit ripens; doesn’t
contribute to gelling
 Pectin – Produced at height of ripeness; extracted to
make jams & jellies
 Pectic acid – Produced when fruit is overripe; doesn’t
contribute to gelling
 Use of Pectic Substances
 Food industry uses pectin as…
 Emulsifier, stabilizer, thickener, texturizer
 Pectic substances & juice cloudiness
 Pectin substances can cause cloudiness
 Unappealing in certain juices – e.g., apple
juice
 Clarification process involves adding
enzymes, such as pectinases, to break down
pectin compounds
 3. Phenolic Compounds
 Responsible for browning & bruising
 Tannins
 Found mostly in unripe fruits, giving them a
bitter taste and leaving astringent in mouth
 Some fruits that contain phenolic
compounds…
 Apples, apricots, avocados, bananas,
cherries, dates, grapes, nectarines, papayas,
peaches, persimmons, pears, strawberries
 Fruits also contain…
 Vitamins and minerals
 Antioxidants – E.g., lycopene (linked to
reducing cancer risk)
 Polyphenols – Linked to decreased risk of
high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke
 Fiber – Linked to decreased risk of colon
cancer & high blood pressure
Ripening of fruit
 Ripening of Fruit
1. Pre-maturation/Development
• ovary wall becomes enlarged by the rapid development of new
tissues, and become juicy with absorption of water
• Starch, organic acids, sugars, protopectin
• Phenolic compounds (tannins)

2. Maturation
• Growth in the size of the fruit seizes
• Changes in acid:sugar ratio
• Starch hydrolysis to produce sugars (glucose)
• Softer tissues
• Astringency drops
 Ripening of Fruit
3. Ripening
• Starch hydrolysis continues, producing more sugar. This increases the
sugar content, and sweetness of fruit increases.
• Acidity drops
• Flavour compounds spread out in the fruit
• Ethylene production
• Skin and colour development; pectin
4. Senescence (aging)
• Nutrient content decreases, not much of acidity left, pectic acid, high
sugar content
• Textural integrity, colour will deteriorate
• Water loss (loses the turgor), flavours decrease
Post-harvest changes
 After harvesting, some fruits and vegetables continue to
respire, undergoing biochemical changes (called ripening)
and then go into the stage of senescence.

– Respiration: a metabolic process by which organic

compounds (CHO, proteins, fats) are broken down into
simple molecules with a release of energy as heat.
• Under normal circumstances, fruits and vegetables
undergo aerobic respiration, during which oxygen and
glucose are consumed while carbon dioxide, water and
heat are produced.

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Classification of fruits by their respiration pattern

Climacteric fruits
 Ripening occurs after harvest.
 Exhibit an sudden increase in respiratory rate after harvest.
 Show obvious changes in colour, flavour and texture
Non-climacteric fruits
 Fruits ripening does not occur after harvest.
 Do not show respiratory rise after harvest.
 Generally ripen on plants and contain no starch.

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 During ripening of climacteric fruits, ethylene (CH2=CH2)
gas is produced.
 Plays a key role in the ripening and senescence of
fruits and vegetables (stimulates ripening) 
breakdown of pectin compounds  soft texture
 Eg. tomatoes, apples, banana, kiwifruits, etc

• Unripe fruits
– Can be picked and shipped green, then treated with
ethylene at retail warehouse to ripen it.

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http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/ethylene.shtml
Class µL Commodities
ethylene/kg.hr
at 20°C
Very low 0.01-0.1 Cherry, grape, strawberry
Low 0.1-1.0 Blueberry, pineapple, cucumber, persimmon
Moderate 1.0-10 Banana, fig, mango, tomato
High 10-100 Apple, apricot, avocado, feijoa, peach, pear,
plum
Very high > 100 Passionfruit
Patterns of the respiration rate after harvest of
climacteric and non-climacteric fruits

100
Rate of Respiration
(mg CO2 per Kg.hr)
Avocado
80

60 Tomato

40

20
Grape

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Days after harvest 28

 Detrimental effects of ethylene
• Accelerates senescence
• Enhances excessive softening of fruits
• Stimulates chlorophyll loss (eg. Yellowing in cucumber, beans,
broccoli)
• Stimulates sprouting of potato
• Promotes discoloration (eg. Browning).
• Promotes abscission of leaves and flowers (cabbage,
cauliflower)
• Induction of stress metabolites
– formation of bitter taste compounds in carrots (isocoumarin)
– Promotes phenolic metabolism related to lignification and
oxidative browning
 Factors affecting ethylene production
• Variety of the fruit
• Maturation state
• Temperature (rate of respiration drops by 50%
for every 10 °C decrease in temp)
• Oxygen level
• CO2 level
• Stress (physical damage)
How to completely inhibit ethylene
• Elevate CO2 ( > 1 %) levels around the
commodity
• Lower temperature
• Reduced O2 ( < 8 %)
• Ethylene action inhibitor
– (1-MCP: methylcyclopropene)
 Potential effects Water loss (%)
Increased activity of some cell wall enzyme. 0.5%
Increased CO2 and ethylene production. Faster 1%
ripening, yellowing and abscission. Reduce wound
healing (periderm formation).
Reduced turgor. Reduced susceptibility to chilling 2%
injury. Accelerated loss of volatiles.
Loss of membrane integrity. 3%
Faster loss of vitamins A and C. Loss of flavor. 4%
Discoloration of mechanical injuries.
Loss of color intensity and gloss. Increase severity 5%
of pitting associated with chilling injury. Wilting and
shriveling.
Loss of textural quality: softening, limpness, 6%
flaccidity, and loss of crispness and juiciness.
Browning of fruit
 Browning Reaction of fruits & veges
• Not desirable and causes economic losses.
• Caused by enzymatic oxidation (polyphenol oxidase,
tyrosinase) when plant tissues are bruised or cut.
– Apples, bananas, peaches, pears, potatoes, etc
• Does not involve reducing sugars & amine unlike the
Maillard reaction.

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Polyphenol oxidase

 Reacts with phenolic compounds H

released from the bruised or cut COOH
HO
plant tissues HO caffeic acid
– Common substrates: caffeic,
coumaric, chlorogenic acid, etc H
COOH
HO

 Active at pH 5-7 H coumaric acid

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• Oxidation reaction with phenolic compounds
• The enzyme (PPO) adds a hydroxyl group to phenolic
compound  oxidizes phenol compounds to the
ketones.

polymerisation
PPO PPO Melanin
O2 O2 amino acid
pigments
HO OH O O
HO proteins
diphenol quinone

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Prevention of enzymatic browning rxn by ascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid destruction by enzymatic browning
Dehydroascorbic
Catechol acid
(Dihydroxylphenol) CH2OH
HCOH O
O
H
O2 HO OH
O O
Polyphenol
oxidase CH2OH
(PPO)
HCOH
O O
H2O H
O O
HO OH
quinone
Ascrobic acid
Melaloidin
pigment
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Prevention of enzymatic browning reaction

Remove available oxygen

• Store in sealed containers or cover with plastic wrap

Destroy or lower enzyme activity

• Reduce pH with citric acid, lemon juice
• Heat (blanching): boiling or steaming
in water for a short time

Add reducing agent & antioxidant

• Ascorbic acid
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2), bisulphite

Freeze storage (-10C)

– Retard the reaction.

Coating with sugar or water 38

 Additives used in Fruits
– Additives added dried fruits to prevent browning
• Sulfites, sorbates, benzoates
– Some are sensitive to sulfites, so vitamin C can be used
instead
– Sulfites can appear on labels as
• Sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfate,
potassium bisulfate, sodium metabisulfite, potassium
metabisulfate
– Sorbic acid (sorbate) – Antifungal agent; aids in
preservation
– Benzoic acid – Preservative often used in dried fruits
Processing of fruit
 Processed Fruits
 Canned: whole, halves, sliced, chunks, crushed,
sauce, or juice
 Fruits canned in their own juice or in light,
medium, or heavy syrup
 Dried Fruits
 Frozen
 Retains color & taste, but texture is damaged
 Signs of refrozen fruit = heavy frost, flaccid,
less flavorful
 Fruit Juices
 Forms…
 Cans
 Cartons
 Bottles
 Fresh
 Frozen concentrates
 ¾ water removed
 Powdered forms
 May contain added
sugar
 Fruit Spread
 Pectin – Makes fruits spreads gel
– At least 0.5 to 1.0% concentration of pectin to gel

 Sugar – Natural preservative

– Most fruit preserves are at least 50% granulated sugar

 Acid – Contributes to both flavor and gel

formation
– Hydrogen ions help pectin molecules to bind; pH needs to be
2.8 – 3.4
 Fruit – Some fruits are better for spreads
because of varying levels acid & pectin
 Fruit Juice Processing
 Juice extraction – Washed; bruises, skin, seeds, mold
removed; juice extracted
 Clarification – Varying amounts of pulp eliminated
 Deaeration – Air removed to reduce undesirable changes
from oxygen; improves shelf life, maintains flavor, reduces
breakdown of vitamin C.
 Pasteurization – High heat inactivates enzymes & destroy
microorganisms
 Concentration/additions – Juice percentage varies;
ingredients added (e.g., calcium)
 Changes During Heating
 Color
 Acids of canned fruits can interact with tin lining to create metal salts that
alter color
 Ethylene gas – Facilitates optimal color in oranges & tomatoes

 Texture – Heating softens fruit due to…

 Conversion of protopectin to pectin
 Degradation of cellulose & hemicellulose
 Denaturation of cell membrane proteins
 Osmosis – Fruit’s osmotic system of selective permeability is replaced
with simple diffusion
 Flavor
 Loss of sugars, acids, essential oils, phenolic & aromatic compounds that
contribute to flavor
 Thus served raw or heated minimally
Chilling & Freezing injury of
Fruit & Veges
 Temperature induced injury
• Temperatures below 0 °C can cause freezing
(depends on the tissue’s sugar content).
• Freezing reduces quality and shelf-life
• Non-freezing temperatures below 10 °C can cause
chilling injury in sensitive crops.
• Chilling injury may be hidden and only develop after
the product is purchase by the consumer.
• A closed cold storage room allows accumulation of
gasses: unusual aromas, CO2, C2H4
Saltveit, Mikal "Fruuit & Vegetable Cold Storage Disorders"
(c) 2015 Postharvest Technology Center, UC Davis
http://ucanr.edu/datastoreFiles/234-2810.pdf
 Chilling injury
• a physiological disorder
• develops after exposure to non-freezing temperatures below
a ‘critical’ temperature (< 10 °C).
• severity of the injury depends on the temperature of
exposure (below threshold), and the duration of exposure.
• ‘critical’ of ‘threshold’ temperature varies with: crop, cultivar,
growing conditions, pre-treatments, etc.
• Symptoms often develop after rewarming.
• Post-chilling environment can mitigate or accentuate
symptom development.
 Freeze Injury
• Water in the cell walls surrounding each plant cell contains
less soluble solids (e.g. sugars) than does the cytoplasm in the
cell, so ice crystals form first in the cell wall.

• The solution in the cell wall gets more concentrated as ice

crystals form.

• Water moves from the cell into the cell wall to re-establish
osmotic equilibrium, and the cell dehydrates.

• Cellular dehydration, not ice crystal formation, causes cellular

injury associated with freezing.
 How to prevent chilling injury?
• Don’t chill
• Use resistant cultivars
• Conditioning
– High temperature pre-treatment
- Low temperature treatment (above
threshold)
– Intermittent warming
• Controlled atmospheres
Pigments in fruit and veges
 Plant Pigments
 Three major groups
 Carotenoids
 Chlorophylls
– Carotenoids & chlorophylls – Found in plastids
– water soluble
 Flavonoids
– Water soluble
– Lost in cooking water
Chlorophylls
• Photosynthetic pigment
• Chlorophyll a: blue-green
• Chlorophyll b: green
• Eg. broccoli, spinach,
cabbage, kale, lettuce
• Water soluble
Carotenoids
• A group of hydrocarbons
• Yellow-orange-red
• Insoluble in water
• Heat resistant
• Not sensitive to pH
• Oxidise readily and lose
colour
• Beta-carotene (orange):
orange, carrot
• Xanthophyll (yellow): yellow
peppers, pineapples
• Lycopene (red): tomatoes
 Flavonoids
anthocyanins Anthoxanthin
• Complex heterocyclic • Antioxidant property
compounds • Water soluble
• Water soluble • Eg. cauliflower, onions,
• Astringent taste turnips
• Antioxidant • Cream/white colour
• Eg. egg plant, radish, red • Whiter in acidic medium,
potato yellow in alkaline medium
• Red-blue-purple colour
• Colour changes with
altering pH (low pH red,
high pH = blue/purple) or in
the presence of metal ions
 Flavonoids
Betalains
• Water soluble
• Contains nitrogen
• Aromatic indole derivatives, synthesised from tyrosine
• Purple-red or yellow
• Present in beets and swisschard
• Natural food dye
– Betacyanins: red to violet
– Betaxanthins: yellow to orange
Chapter 13: Vegetables &
Legumes
Understanding Food:
Principles & Preparation (4th Ed.)
Amy Brown
 Structure of Plant Cells
 Cell wall
 Fibrous compounds – Contributes to strength
of wall
– Indigestible by humans – Don’t have the enzyme
necessary to break down cellulose & glucose
 Fiber includes:
 Cellulose, pectic compounds, hemicellulose,
lignin, gums
 Structure of Plant Cells
 Pectin compound & hemicelluloses
 Intra- & intercellular cement that gives firmness &
elasticity to cells
 Lignin
 Non-carbohydrate;
 as plant ages, lignin concentrations increase
creating tougher plant
 Gums
 Polysaccharides with ability to absorb water &
swell several times over original size
 Within the cytoplasm of cells are compounds
responsible for…
 Starch content
 Color
 Water volume
 Flavor
 Plastids
 Organelles that store substances, such as
starch & pigments
 Leucoplasts
– Store starch & some water; starch is major
digestible portion of plant
 Chloroplasts
– Contains the chlorophyll essential for carb synthesis
& create green color
 Chromoplast
– Contain carotene or xanthophyll pigments & create
orange-yellow color
 Plastids
 Vacuoles
 Store water & other compounds
 Larger cells store more water & create juicier
vegetables
 Turgor – Rigid firmness of plant cell resulting
from being filled w/ water
 Organic acids – Contribute to food’s…
 Cell pH
 Flavor & acidity
 Intercellular air spaces

 Spaces between cells fill w/ air

– Adds volume & crispness
 Closeness of cells to each other creates
textural differences in terms of crispness
 Without air, fruits & vegetables would be soft
& flaccid