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ii) The other aspect of culture is Abstract, non-physical and non-material. It includes ideas,
knowledge, tradition Belief, art and so on. It is called non-material culture.
Culture, Society and History
• Arts of Indus Valley Civilisation Or Harappan Civilisation
Pottery, Bronze, Stone Statues, Terracota images, beads ornaments,
clothing and garment
Stone Statues - Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King)
trefoil pattern art
Indus Valley Civilisation Or Harappan
Civilisation
• As per evidences found from many archeological excavations done during late 19th century to 20th century,
Harappan period is the ancient most civilization of India and contemporary to Mesopotamian(ancient Iraq) and
Egyptian civilization.
It was a five thousand year old civilization and represented an advanced level of cultural development during an
epoch when iron was still not discovered and bronze was used for making tools, implements and arms.
Mahenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal etc. were some of the major cities of the period. There was a certain
unity of conception among the various cities. A Harappan city was divided into two parts - the one settled on a
raised platform for the rulers and the lower city meant for the common people. The houses were built, in some
cases, of baked bricksand in other cases of mud bricks. These bricks were of standard size which showed that the
brick making was organized on a large scale.
Similar to the town-planning, the potteries made by the Harappans were found in large areas and showed a
uniform pattern. In fact, their tradition of pottery making can, with many changes, be found even today. Art works
in terracotta and sculptures in bronze and stone are other important remains from the Harappan period. The
Harappan potteries and seals contain Figures of bull, ram, pipal tree, fish scales etc. The Harappans also seemed to
worship pipal tree and the phallus (animage of Shiva) which remain important religious symbols in today's India.
Arc hi t ec t ure – The G r eat Bat h, The Gr ana r y at har r a ppa, The Pi l l ar ed ha l l of M ohe nj od ar o, The Do ckyar d at l ot hal , Ci t ade l
The Granary at harappa: The so-called "granary" of Harappa is found on Mound F. It is a brick
structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north south and 45 meters east-
west.
Terracotta , Seals
Mauryan Period Art (Sramans Tradition)
Mauryan Period Art (Sramans Tradition)
The Vedic Civilization
The Vedic Civilization, associated with the coming of the Aryans to India, is said to have begun about
1500 B.C and lasted about 600 B.C. It was an agricultural civilization. During this period many
features associate with what has come to be called as Hinduism originated and took shape.
It has left its imprint on our culture today in the form of settled agriculture, cattle breeding, centrality
of cow (and bullocks) in our economy and religious beliefs, the horse, the chariot, the use of iron,
domestication of animals such as elephants, kinship and patriarchy as basis of social organizations,
the development of kingdom and large empires.
We still have with us the Vedic hymns composed almost 3500 years ago whish even today areused in
many Hindu rituals, the sacredness of fire as intermediary between god and man, theworship of gods
associated with natural phenomena, the doctrine of transmigration, animal sacrifice etc. In terms of
literature and philosophical thought it has given us the Vedas, the Upanishads, Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit languages and literature etc.
Four Vedas – The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.
Geographical- Rig Vedic people lived in Sapt Sindhu
region i.e. land of seven rivers
The Dasrajan War – During Rig Ved
• According to Rig Veda this war was fought between Sudas and ten
kings and in the end Sudas (Indo-Aryan tribal king of the Bhāratas)
won the battle.
• The battle was fought on the bank of river Parushni (Ravi)
• Ten kings were from (Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus, Druhyus, Alinas,
Pakhtas, Bhulanas, Sibis and Vaishanins)
Polity During Vedic Period
• The Kula means family was basis of both social and political
organisation
• Form of government was patriarchal nature
• The rashtra was ruled by a king of Raja
• Purohit (brahmin) was the first ranking official
• Other important royal officials were Senani and Gramani.
• Kula The GramaThe VisThe JanaThe Rashtra
Continued…
• During the 6th century B C.Mahavir Swamy and Gautam Buddha were the two great
religious leaders of this period. By thestrength of their ideas they can be said to be among
the greatest in the world. The Jain andBuddha religions emerged as a result of teachings of
Mahavir and Gautam Buddha respectively. Buddhism spread far and wide and, atone point
of time, almost the whole of Asia, which represented the apex of civilization,became
influenced by Buddhism. In lndia also, Buddhism held influence for almost one
thousandyears and greatly influenced Indian culture and society. Many concepts and
values of thisperiod are among our most cherished cultural heritage today.
• Jainism and Buddhism represented a revolt against the concept of social inequality and the
hierarchal Varnashram system preached by the Brahmins. These regions openedtheir gates
to members of all castes and groups in the society. Nonviolence,humanism and stress on
moral life were the hallmarks of these new religiousorders.
• One of the tools of the Brahminical domination was the stress on the language of
theVedas, that is, Sanskrit. The new religions put more emphasis on the popular
languageslike Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jain texts were written in
these languages and nobody was debarred from reading or interpreting them.
• This period also witnessed the rise of architecture and sculpture to new heights. The
temples at Jhandial (Takshashila), Nagari (Rajasthan), Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh) and
Nagarjunakonda(Andhra Pradesh) are some of the structures found in excavations.
• The Buddhist Stupas, in which the mortal remains of important personalities are to be
found,are distributed in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh),
Amaravatiand Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh) and Takshashila (now in Pakistan).
• Cave architecture and cave paintings reached new heights and the Mathura,
Gandhara and Amaravati schools of art produced figures of great beauty during this
period. All these places, monuments and figures are of great touristic interests even
today and every yearthousands of pilgrims or tourists visit these sites.
• During this period South India witnessed the rise of Satavahanas, one of the
greatestIndian rulers, in the 1st century B.C. They heldsway in most of the Deccan and
on their collapse, other powers like the Cholas, Pandyas,Keralaputras etc. arose.The
celebrated sangam poetry in Tamil was collected and classified by an academy
ofscholars.
. The Gupta Period (319 AD to 540 AD)
• In the 4th century AD a new dynasty, the
Guptas, arose in Magadha and
established a large kingdom over the greater
part of Northern India.
• Their rule lasted for 200 years
• The period is referred to the Classical age of
golden age
• According to epigraphic evidence, the
founder of the dynasty was a person named
Gupta. He used the simple title of Maharaja
• Gupta was succeeded by his son Ghatotkach,
who also inherited the title of Maharja
The Gupta Empire: A Detailed Summary
• Srigupta
He founded the Gupta Dynasty in the 3rd century AD.
He used the title of Maharaja.
• Gatotkacha Gupta
He succeeded Srigupta.
He also took the title of Maharaja.
• Chandra Gupta I (319-334 AD)
He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’.
He started the Gupta Era in 319 AD which marked the date of his accession.
He married Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi and started matrimonial alliance
that helps him to control the portion of Bihar and Nepal.
Cont…
• All the power was concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to the
kings.
• • The king adopted the titles of such as Paramveshvara, Maharajadhiraj and Parambhattaraka.
Kingship was hereditary but there was no a firm of primogeniture.
• • The Gupta rulers has organised a huge army.
• • Forced labour or Vishti was also practised in royal Army.
• • The king acted as the fountainhead and decided all disputes in general, punishments were light
and mild.
• • A council of ministers and civil officials assisted the king
• • The most important officers in the Gupta Empire were the Kumaramatyas.
• • The royal seal bore the imprint of Garuda. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the
practice of granting land and fiscal administrative concessions the priests and administrators
became regular affairs in the Gupta times.
• • A new office of Sandhivigrhaka was created during Samundra Gupta who was responsible for
the peace and war. Harisena held this title.
Art and Architecture during the Gupta Empire
• Most remarkable was the Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta.
• Nagara and Dravidian styles of art came during this period.
• There was absence of growth of Gandhara style.
• But Mathura’s one pleasant standing Buddha statue shows a little Greek style.
• The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi, the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas (near Allahabad) was great source of showing effects of the Gupta art.
• The unearthed statue of Buddha at Sarnath is a symbol of Gupta art.
• Most of the paintings are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior which shows the greatness and preciseness of Gupta art.
• The paintings of Ajantha mostly demonstrate the life of the Buddha.
• Kalidasa was a great poet and play writer during Chandragupta II. His master-piece was the Shakuntala. His other plays are
Malavikagnimitra ,Vikramorvasiya and Kumarasambhava. His two lyrics are Ritusamhara and Meghaduta.
• During the Gupta period Metallurgy also made a wonderful impact. The craftsmen were expert in their art of casting metal statues and pillars.
• The most antique item in Sultanganj which is the huge copper statue of Buddha. This is now kept at Birmingham museum, was of seven and a half
feet height and a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is rust free even today.
• Chandragupta II and his successors also issued gold, silver and copper coins.
• Samudragupta was a great poet. Samudragupta patronized Harisena. Harisena was a one of the scholars.
• Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita.
• Vasavadatta was written by Subhandhu.
• Visakadatta was other renowned author of this period. He was the author of two drams: Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
• The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period.
• Sudraka was a renowned poet. He wrote his book Mrichchakatika.
• Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya is the story of discriminations between Arjuna and Siva.
• • The Buddhist author Amarasimha created Amarakosa.
• Established by Chandra Gupta I in 319-20 A.D., the Gupta power reached its peak during the
reign of Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II. Gupta period is often described as representing
the highest forms of Indian culture. So far as the literary and philosophical achievements are
concerned, there is truth in this statement. The sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata,
though composed in earlier times, are said to be collected during this period. The Hindu
thinkers developed a cyclic theory of time according to which the Kalpa was divided into 4 ages
(Satyug, Tretayug, Dwaparyug and Kaliyug) and at the end of which the Universe is recreated.
• This period also witnessed the composition of six great systems of Hindu philosophy - Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. The Puranas (the Hindu religious texts and
historical sources) were also composed in this period.
• Great developments took place in the fields of Indian astronomy, astrology and mathematics.
Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were some of the great astronomers of the period. Kalidas, the
greatest of the Indian literary figures, composed his poetic and dramatic worksduring this
period. His epic poems, Kumar sambhava and Raghuvamsha, the lyrical poem Meghaduta and
the great drama Shakuntala are considered among the greatest of the world literature. Later on
Shudrak (Mrichchha Katika) and Banabhatta (Harsha Charita) contributed to this great literary
tradition. The fables of Panchatantra were collected and scripted. Vatsayayan's Kamasutra, the
world - famous text on sexual enjoyment was also written during this period. In terms of
architectural or sculptural developments also the Gupta period was significant.
The Early Medieval Period
• After Harshavardhan, new kingdoms and dynasties emerged. They were big
landlords or warrior chiefs who emerged close to 7th century. The Kings
acknowledged them as Samanthas, and received gift from these samanthas, who
provided the militray support to the kings in need.
• They often declared themselves as ‘maha-samanthas’ and ‘maha-mahadaleshvara’.
For instance, the Rashtrakutas in Deccan, who were initially they were subordinate
to Chalukyas of Karnataka. In mid 8th century they gained control over the land.
• There were Brahmin rulers like the Kadamba Mayurasharman in Karnataka and
Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandara in Rajasthan.
• “Tripartite Struggle” between the Rashtrakutas, Palas and Gurjara- Pratihara fought
to control Kanauj, towards the end of 8th century AD. This struggle for supremacy
among the Palas, Partihars and rashtrakutas was significant event in these centuries.
• Genrally, the period between 750 AD and 1200 AD is referred to as the Rajput
Period. This period has been characterised by a lack of unity in the kingdoms amid
foreign invasions.
The Palas of Bengal during Early Medieval Period in India:
The Senas
• After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule in Bengal. The founder of the dynasty was
Samantasena. The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena. He conquered the whole of Bengal and was
succeeded by his son Ballalasena. He reigned peacefully but kept his dominions intact. He was a great scholar and
wrote four works including one on astronomy. The last ruler of this dynasty was Lakshamanasena under whose reign
the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the empire fell.
The Pratihara
• The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it
remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal (Bhopal). Raja Bhoja and other
valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs from west.
• Between 915-918 A.D, Kanauj was attacked by a Rashtrakuta king, who devastated the city leading to the weakening
of the Pratihara Empire. In 1018, Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. The
empire broke into independent Rajput states.
• The Rashtrakutas
• This dynasty, which ruled from Karnataka, is illustrious for several reasons. They ruled the territory vaster than that of any other dynasty. They were
great patrons of art and literature. The encouragement that several Rashtrakuta kings provided to education and literature is unique, and the
religious tolerance exercised by them was exemplary.