BIOL2001A

Animals: Form and

Function

Flatworms and
Rotifers
Today’s learning objectives
By the end of today’s class, you will be able to:

• Describe the body form and structure of

flatworms.
• Describe how flatworms maintain osmotic
balance.
• Compare and contrast the nervous systems of
Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes.
• Describe the similarities and differences
between Platyhelminthes and Rotifera
Bilateral symmetry from here on
out!
Phylum Platyhelminthes
• Bilateral symmetry.
• Triploblastic acoelomates.
• Tissue-organ level of organization.
• Broad variation in size (1 mm to
several meters).
Three tissue layers:
1 3

2
 Most flatworms are acoelomates
1. Acoelomate

Flatworm

2. Pseudocoelomate

Roundworm

3. Coelomate

Earthworm

Fig. 3.15
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class
Turbellaria Trematoda Monogenea Cestoda

Lifestyle Free living Parasitic Parasitic Parasitic

Type of
-- Internal External Internal
parasite

Digestive
tract Present Present Present Absent
 Ocellus
Cross Section of Planarian
(Class: Turbellaria)
Intestine
Dorsal (not ciliated epidermis) Pharynx

Intestine

Ventral (ciliated epidermis) Nerve Cord

Dual-gland Mucous
adhesive organ gland cell

Fig. 8.6
 Ventral surface of a turbellarian

Parenchymal muscle
Longitudinal muscle
Circular muscle
Basement membrane

Epidermal cell

Cilia

Substrate
Specialized structures in the
epidermis
1. Rhabdites: Small rod-shaped structures formed from the golgi
body inside mucous gland cells.
– Mucous gland cell inserts into the epidermis when Rhabdites are formed,
releasing the rhabdites.
– Rhabdites form a “slime” or “mucus” that helps the animal move on the
surface (ciliary gliding), capture prey, and provide immune defense.

2. Dual-gland adhesive organs: Organs composed of three cell

types that mediate attachment and release of epidermis to
substrate.
Rhabdites are produced by the mucous
gland cells.
Rhabdites swell to produce a viscous
mucous once mixed with water. Ventral ciliated epidermis

Mucous gland
cell

Rhabdite

Substrate
 Dual-gland adhesive organ is composed
of three cell types:
Viscid gland cell produces secretion that
attaches anchor cell to the substrate. Releasing Ventral ciliated epidermis
gland cell secretion allows it to release.

Releasing
gland

Viscid gland
Nerve

Epithelial cell

Anchor cell

Substrate
Locomotion
Locomotion involves
1. Ciliated ventral surface.
2. Subtle muscular contraction.
3. Dual-gland adhesive organs.

Paired viscid cells (glands)

Produce adhesive secretions that attach the
microvilli of anchor cells to substrate.
Anchor cells
Bear strain of attachment and allow subtle
muscular contractions to pull the animal
forward.
Releasing cell (gland)
Produce secretions that release anchor cell
attachment.

Fig. 8.7
Locomotion
Video of a planarian (Turbellaria) moving across the sea
floor:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=myJumAHift4
Feeding and digestion
• Most platyhelminthes have a mouth, pharynx and central intestine
with branching diverticula.
• Pharynx is an extensible tube, that can extend outside the mouth.
• Most have no anus (regurgitate undigested material), some have a
single anus, some have many ani (yes that is a word).

Intestine
Diverticulum

Mouth
Pharynx

See also Fig. 8.9B/C

Osmoregulation

Flame cell: an 'inverted' flagellated

cell sitting in a 'mesh cup’.

Flagella Weir (mesh): cellular interdigitation

Tubules
between flame cell and terminal
tubule cell

Protonephridium
(Greek.: prōtos, first; nephros, kidney)
The first dedicated excretory system
we have encountered.

Tubule
Interdigitated
flame cell and How it works:
tubule cells have • Beating flagella create a negative
extensive surface pressure that draws fluid in through the
area of contact. mesh.
• Fluid is “ultrafiltered” through the weir
(mesh), then further modified as it
passes through the tubule system.
• Modified fluid is released to the
environment through excretory pores
called nephridiopores.
Nervous system and sense organs
Cephalization: Concentration of sense
organs and nervous control (nervous
tissue) at one end of the animal.

Concentration of
(No concentrations
nervous tissue at
of nervous tissue)
anterior end (brain).

Cnidarian
Platyhelminth
 Three arrangements of nervous systems found in Platyhelminthes:

Cerebral
Ring-like Cerebral ganglion
simple ganglion (brain)
brain (brain)
Nerve
cord
Nerve
cord

Ring
commissure

1. Subepidermal 2. Cerebral ganglion with 3. Cerebral ganglion with longitudinal

nerve plexus longitudinal nerve cords nerve cords and transverse ring
commissures
Auricle: Angled projections from the side of
the head, with a concentration of sensory
neurons.
– Tactile receptors
– Chemoreceptors
– Rheoreceptors
– Statocysts

Eye spots: Simple eyes to

detect the direction and
intensity of light.
– Single layer of
photoreceptive cells
– No lenses (cannot
focus)
 An unexpected role for muscle cells

- Planarians have a relatively simple brain and vision system.

- Because of this, and their ability to regenerate lost tissue, they are a
common study organism for researchers interested in regenerative
medicine (rebuilding lost or damaged tissues).

- Muscle cells play a role in regenerating nervous tissue after injury.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8R5J_U9Oxg&t=115s

- In fact, muscle cells are critical to maintaining a “map” of the body

that enables regeneration.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=THA_EsSe4XI
Reproduction and development
• Many flatworms can
reproduce sexually or
asexually.
• Many can reproduce
asexually through budding Budding occurs by “pinching off” body
sections (Fig. 8.10C)
(fission).
– Also able to
spontaneously
regenerate lost body
parts.

• Most flatworms are

monoecious
(hermaphroditic) and can
cross fertilize to produce
offspring sexually as
either the mother or the
father. Cross fertilization
Phylum(Latin
Rotifera
rota: “wheel”, fero: “to bear”)

• Named because of their

ciliated corona which looks like
rotating wheels.
• Mostly transparent and small
(100-500 µm long) animals.
• Primarily found in freshwater
systems and feed on small
plankton.
• Some species are marine,
terrestrial or parasitic.
Phylum Rotifera
Rotifer feeding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRZ64_lZf_8&frags=pl%2Cwn
Phylum Rotifera Corona

• Rotifers are pseudocoelomates.

Eye
– “Tube within a tube” arrangement. Flame
spot
– No mesodermal smooth tissue cell
membrane (pertioneum) lining the
coelom.
Stomach
• Anterior corona and posterior
foot.
• Protonephridia (flame cells) for
fluid excretion – adapted for
freshwater life!
• Many species are parthenogenic Bladder
(females produce offspring from
diploid eggs without any males).

Foot
Toe
Rotifer anhydrobiosis
• Cryptobiosis: A physiological state where metabolism is extremely
reduced.
• Anhydrobiosis: A form of cryptobiosis induced by a lack of
available water where the animal loses a large proportion of their
body water.

• Some rotifers inhabit ponds that dry

seasonally and have evolved the
ability to undergo anhydrobiosis.
• Upon exposure to water, animals
rehydrate and become active.
• Can survive decades in this state (like
a plant seed).
Photo by Giulio Melone, Milan University
• Can be dispersed while dormant like
dust in the wind.
CASE STUDY 3
 Next class: Molluscs

With special
guest: Dr. Fouzia
Haider, an expert
in mollusc
bioenergetics!