NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI

Department of Physics
M. Tech -NDT
Topic: CEMENT
PRESENTED BY FACULTY NAME

Abhishek Kirar (213122001) Dr S. Manivannan

A Y S Vamsi Krishna (213122002)
Ankit Singh (213122003)
Gaurav Sahu (213122004)
Gopal Kumar Gorai (213122005)
1
G Prasanna (213122006)
 CONTENTS:
1. Introduction.
2. History of cement.
3. Composition of cement.
4. Types of cement.
5. Manufacturing of cement.
6. Cement industries in the world.
7. Testing of cement.
8. Safety issues and environmental impact.
9. Research work on cement .

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 What is cement?
Cement is a dry powdery substance made by calcining lime and clay, mixed with water to
form mortar or mixed with sand, gravel and water to make concrete.
It is a binder material. Once hardened, cement delivers sufficient strength to erect large
industrial structures.

Cement basically constitutes of calcareous and argillaceous materials.

Raw material ingredients used for manufacturing of Portland Cement are:

Calcareous Materials : Calcareous Materials are compounds of calcium and magnesium.

Limestones are common calcareous material used in manufacturing cement.

Argillaceous materials : Argillaceous materials are mainly silica, alumina and oxides of
iron. Clay and shale are common Argillaceous materials used as cement ingredient in
manufacturing of cement.

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 History Of Cement
Throughout history, cementing materials have played a vital role and were used widely in the
ancient world. The Egyptians used calcined gypsum as a cement and the Greeks and Romans
used lime made by heating limestone and added sand to make mortar, with coarser stones for
concrete.

The Romans found that a cement could be made which set under water and this was used for
the construction of harbours. This cement was made by adding crushed volcanic ash to lime and
was later called a "pozzolanic" cement, named after the village of Pozzuoli near Vesuvius.

In places where volcanic ash was scarce, such as Britain, crushed brick or tile was used instead.
The Romans were therefore probably the first to manipulate systematically the properties of
cementitious materials for specific applications and situations.

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M.Tech (NDT)- PH 613 NITT, INDIA
 While history usually regards Aspdin as the inventor of Portland cement,
Aspdin's cement was not produced at a high-enough temperature to be the
real forerunner of modern Portland cement. Nevertheless, his was a major
innovation and subsequent progress could be viewed as mere
development.

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A few years later, in 1845, Isaac Johnson made the first modern Portland Cement by firing a
mixture of chalk and clay at much higher temperatures, similar to those used today. At these
temperatures (1400C-1500C), clinkering occurs and minerals form which are very reactive and
more strongly cementitious.

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 While Johnson used the same materials to make Portland cement as we use now,
three important developments in the manufacturing process lead to modern
Portland cement:

1. Development of rotary kilns.

2. Addition of gypsum to control setting.

3. Use of ball mills to grind clinker and raw materials.

Rotary kiln Ball mill

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 Composition of Cement

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 Ingredient Percentage in cement

Lime 60-65%
Silica 17-25%
Alumina 3-8%
Magnesia 1-3%
Iron oxide 0.5-6%
Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5%

Sulfur Trioxide 1-3%

Alkaline 0-1%

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The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and
usefulness or harmfulness are given below:

1.Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

•The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and
aluminates of calcium.
•Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of the property of the cement.
•Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.
•Excess lime makes cement unsound.
•The excessive presence of lime causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.

2.Silica: Silican dioxide is known as silica chemical formula SiO2.

•A sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and
tricalcium silicate.
•Silica imparts strength to cement.
•Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

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 3.Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
•  Alumina imparts quick setting  property of the cement.
• Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite
quantity of alumina.
• Excess alumina weakens the cement.

4.Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.

• Imparts hardness and color to the cement.
• Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
• Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

5.Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.

• Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
• It acts as a flux.
• At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with
calcium and aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
• Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

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6.Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
• This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
• It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.

7.Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3

• It should not be present for more than 2%.
• Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes the cement to unsound.
 
8.Alkaline:

• It should not be present more than 1%.

• Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

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Types of Cement:
 Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC)

 Portland Pozzolana Cement(PCC)

 Rapid Hardening Cement(RHC)

 Extra Rapid Hardening Cement(ERHC)

 Quick Setting Cement

 Low Heat Portland Cement

 blast furnace Slag cement

 Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement

 High Alumina Cement

 Hydrophobic Cement
 White Portland Cement
 Super Sulphate Cement
 Special Cements
• Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC) :
Ordinary Portland cement is one of the most widely used type of Cement.
The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement are.
 Argillaceous Compound (Ca,Mg)
 Calcareous Compound(Al,Si)
belite (Ca2SiO4) combines with calcium oxide (CaO) to form alite (Ca3SiO5).
 Lime(62%-67%) CaO:
Imparting strength
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 (Unsoundness) {Excess}
 Strength {Deficiency}

 Silica(17%-25%) SiO : 2

Imparting strength
Setting time (plasticity increase) {Excess}
Strength
 Alumina(3%-8%) Al2O3:
It impart flash set/quick set ,set fast means react fast, means generate more heat,
means evaporation of water, means deficiency of water,also reduce water level
cause shrinkage result in crack.
If not control it will set within 5 min.
Working like flux means resistance against high temp.
 Gypsum(3%-4%) CaSO4:
It is a additive to control Alumina
Delaying the set time make a temporary layer on cement particle
CaSO4.2H2O It lost its water and the time when it recollecting its lost water it became hard and
this phenomenon is called false setting.
 Iron oxide (3%-4%) Fe2O3:
Responsible of strength, hardness, colour (Reddish brown)
 Magnesium oxide (<5%) MgO:
Strength, hardness, colour(yellow tingle)
yellow tingle + reddish brown = Grey
MgO & Fe2O3 indirectly increase strength by helping lime and silica to fuse each other.
 Sulphur(<2.5%) S :
It is in soil
create unsoundness no advantage
Ca,Al + S calcium alumino sulphate
(227% more volume than original)
 Alkali :
From nature
Na2O +K2O <1%
Cause flash set, reduce initial set ,unsoundness, Alkali create unsoundness in concrete.
• Portland pozzlonic cement(PPC):
cement clinker + pozzolonic material(15%-35%) + high burnt gypsum(5%-10%)
Pozzolonic material (Si, Al) +Ca(OH)2 C-S-H gel
Cost effective
Environment friendly
Durability
Sulphur attach resistance
Heat of hydration decrease
Water required less
 Fineness of cement =3000 cm2/gm
Use in mass construction s resistance is more use in foundation work also.
Not have quick setting
Not have rapid hardness C3A is less that’s why
For general construction on best quality it is the best option.
• Rapid Hardening Cement(RHC):
rapid gain in strength
C3S increase> 56% { frost resistance ,high shrinkage,water required}
Fineness of cement increase= 3250 cm2/gm
1st day 3rd day strength
Cost of RHC is 10-15% more than OPC
• Extra rapid hardening cement(ERHC):
RHC + 2% by wt of cement add CaCl2
First day strength is 25% more than RHC
Used for leader coming in morning.
• Quick setting portland cement:
C3A Increase this combination give quick set
Gypsum decrease
Set in 5 minutes
Used in underwater , grouting etc
•• Low heat
Low cement
heat :
cement :
CC3S decrease
3S decrease reducereduce this
this both both decrease
decrease the heat the heat
CC3A decrease
3A decrease
C2S increase , not bcz of heat control but to provide strength
C2S increase , not bcz of heat control but to provide strength
Durable , C2S C-S-H + Ca(OH)2
Durable , C2S C-S-H + Ca(OH) 2
C3A decrease so initial set decrease
CSulphur
3A decrease so initial set decrease
resistance
To increase
Sulphur setting time we make it finner >3250 cm2/gm
resistance
Used
To in massive
increase construction
setting time we make itdams,retaining
finner >3250 cm 2walls
/gm etc.
• Used
Portland blast
in massive furnacedams,retaining
construction Slag cementwalls
: etc.
cement clinker
• Portland + GBFS(Slag
blast furnace 25%-65%)
cement+: high burnt Gypsum = Portland slag cement
GBFS =Granulated blast furnace slag =melting iron
cement clinker + GBFS( 25%-65%) + high burnt Gypsum = Portland slag cement
Gain strength slower than OPC, use formass concreting but is unsuitable for cold
GBFS =Granulated blast furnace slag =melting iron
High sulphate resistance , can be use soil construction
Gain strength slower than OPC, use formass concreting but is unsuitable for cold
High sulphate resistance , can be use soil construction
• Super Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement(SSRC):
cement clinker(5%) + GBFS(80-85%) + high burnt cement(10-15%)= SSRC
highly Durable
Rate of getting strength decrease
High resistance to chemical attach
Should use where temperature<40OC
Used dams and other mass concreting works
• Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement(SRC) :
C3A should not >5%
2 C3A + C4AF (<25%)
C3AF is better resistive than C3A,C4AF can be manage by Fe2O3
C3A decrease so sulphate resistance increase, rate of setting decrease
Heat of hydration decrease
 Finness =4000 cm2/gm
Use in marine structure, sewer,canal lining etc.
• High Alumina Cement(HAC):

This is non OPC cement

alumina is so high, Alumina give resistance to heat use for chimney
Lime(40%) + bauxite(40%) Fe2O3 +Others
As Alumina is high so we expect set time fast but it is not happen bcz it is non OPC
cement. CAH10 ( mono calcium alumina decahydrate)

HAC + Water C2AH8(dicarbon alumino octahydrated)

Alumina gel ( high intensity of consolidation)

Alumina gel give 60-80% ultimate strength in 1 Day
for cold place we can’t use low heat cement so this is the option now
Highly durable no leakage
Highly expensive cement
Finness = 2250 cm2/gm
• Hydrophobic Cement:
Obtained by intergrinding OPC with 0.1-0.4 % of water repellant film- forming substance like
oleic acid, stearic acid
to reduce the intensity of pre hydration we make it hydrophobic
If pre hydrated our quality decrease, so we are making a layer of chemical which are known
water repellent additive.
Cost is nominally higher than OPC.
• White Portland Cement:

reduce Fe2O3 <1% bcz it is responsible for colour

strength is going to decrease.
Sodium alumino ferrite(Cryolite) Na3AlF6 is added to act as flux in place of iron oxide
Whiteness of white cement measure on Hunter’s scale
Whiteness should be 90% generally on Hunter’s scale
• Special cements:
1. Masonry cement:
Portland cement + plasticizing material(lime) + other material
To increase one or more properties such as setting time,workability,water retention, durability
Used for masonry work ,plaster work etc
2. Air entraining cement (AEC):
Mix small(.1-.3%) AEC with OPC clinker at the time of grinding
Good workability so have higher initial setting time than OPC, so shrinkage reduce
It make tough ,tiny, discrete air bubble time of mixing which improve workability,
segregation and bleeding.
3.Expansive cement :
8-10% calcium alumino sulphate additive
Can expand so can be use in corners.
4.Oil well cement:
To protect the leakage
Make durable cement slurry , so there is no crack form even on the cement slurry.
Use pozolonic material it give high durability.
5 . IRS T-40 cement :
It is a rapid hardening cement used by Indian railway for concrete sleeper manufacturing.
Patent by railway so no record of composition .
 Manufacturing of Cement
There are six main stages of the cement manufacturing process.

1. Raw material extraction/ Quarry

2. Grinding, Proportioning and Blending

3. Pre-Heating Raw Material

4. Kiln Phase

5. Cooling and Final Grinding

 Raw material extraction/ Quarry
• The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are limestone
(calcium), sand and clay (silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly ash, mill scale,
and bauxite.

• The ore rocks are quarried and crushed into smaller pieces of about 6
inches.

• Secondary crushers or hammer mills then reduce them to an even smaller

size of 3 inches. After that, the ingredients are prepared for
pyroprocessing.
 Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
• The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement-making
process in the kiln by combining them with additives and grinding them to
ensure a fine homogenous mixture.

• The composition of cement is proportioned here depending on the

desired properties of the cement. Generally, limestone is 80%, and the
remaining 20% is clay.

• In the cement plant, the raw mix is dried (moisture content reduced to
less than 1%); heavy wheel-type rollers and rotating tables blend the raw
mix and then the roller crushes it to a fine powder to be stored in silos and
fed to the kiln.
 Pre-Heating Raw Materials
• A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot
gases produced from the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and
make the cement-making process more environment-friendly.

• The raw materials are passed through here and turned into oxides to be
burned in the kiln.
 Kiln Phase
• The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process. Here,
clinker is produced from the raw mix through a series of chemical reactions
between calcium and silicon dioxide compounds.
• Though the process is complex, the events of the clinker production can be
written in the following sequence:
1. Evaporation of free water.
2. Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components.
3. Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide
(CaO).
4. The reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate.
5. The reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing
constituents forms the liquid phase.
6. Formation of the clinker nodules.
7. Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g. sodium, potassium,
chlorides, and sulfates).
8. The reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium silicate forms tricalcium
silicate.
 Chemical reactions during cement
manufacturing process

• Clay Decomposition:
Si2Al2O5(OH)2 → 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor)
KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 + 0.5 K2SO4

• Dolomite Decomposition:
CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCO3 + MgO + CO2
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO + 0.5 Al2O3 +
3SiO2 + H2O (vapor)
• Low-Temperature Calcite Decomposition:
2CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2CO2
2MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4
Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25SiO2 → 1.5Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25Ca2SiO4 + 0.5H2O(vapour)

• Alumina and Oxide Reaction:

12CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2

• The reaction of Remaining Calcite:

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

• Sintering:
Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5
 Cooling and Final Grinding
• After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to
100°C-200°C by passing air over it.

• At this stage, different additives are combined with the clinker to be

ground in order to produce the final product, cement.

• Gypsum added to and ground with clinker regulates the setting time and
gives the most important property of cement, compressive strength.
 Packing and Shipping
• Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks) where
it is packed in 20-40 kg bags.

• Most of the product is shipped in bulk quantities by trucks, trains, or ships,

and only a small amount is packed for customers who need small
quantities.
 CEMENT INDUSTRIES IN THE WORLD

United States Geological Survey (USGS Mineral Program Cement Report)

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 CEMENT INDUSTRIES IN THE WORLD
 The total volume of cement production worldwide amounted to an
estimated 4.4 billion tons in 2021.
 For the world capacity to produce cement in 2021, the situation with the top
three states (China, India, and USA) accounting for more than 50% the
world total capacity.

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 TESTING OF CEMENT

 LABORATORY TEST:
1. Fineness Test
2. Consistency Test
3. Setting Time Test
4. Soundness Test
5. Strength Test
 FIELD TEST:
1. Colour Test
2. Physical Property Test
3. Strength Test

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 1.FINENESS TEST
 This test method is used both for control of the grinding process and for
testing the finished cement.
 Average size of the cement Particles should be nearly equal to 10 µ’s.

 SIEVE TEST :
 The cement weighing 100gms is taken and continuously sieved for
15 minutes using sieve number IS 90 micron size.
 The weight of the residual should not be more than 10%.

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 FINENESS TEST
 Air Permeability Test :
 Blaine’s Air Permeability Apparatus

I. This test is based on the principle of determining specific surface area(surface area
per unit weight) of the cement.
II. Specific surface area is proportional to √t, where ‘t’ is the time required for fixed
amount of air to flow through the fixed size of cement bed.
III. If Specific Surface area is high, fineness is High.
IV. For OPC specific surface area ≥ 2250 cm^2/gm.

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 2.STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST
The consistency of cement is the minimum water requirement to start the chemical
reaction between water and cement to form a uniform cement paste.

 First Take 500gms of cement and prepare a paste

with a weighed quantity of water (say 24 percent by
weight of cement) for the first trial.
 After preparing the paste fill the paste within 3 to 4
minutes
 After completing compaction take Vicat plunger and
attach it to Vicat apparatus then move down and
keep on paste surface (touch to paste surface).
 Then quickly released plunger and allow to it sink in
mould of paste by its own weight. Then take the
reading, If the depth of penetration of the plunger is
not 33 to 35mm then try 2nd trial.

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 3.SETTING TIME TEST
A. Initial Setting Time Test :
 In this take first take 500gms cement and add water (0.85 times of water to make cement paste of
standard consistency (0.85p)) and make cement paste in a standard manner.
 Start the stopwatch when water is added to the cement. And also note the temperature.
 Lower the needle bring it in contact with the surface of the mould paste and quickly release.
 Allow it to penetrate in mould paste. Beginning the needle is completely penetrate. But after some
time when the paste starts losing plasticity, the needle may penetrate only to a depth of 33 to
35mm from the top.
 The time between water add in cement and the needle penetrate only to a depth of 33 to 35mm
from the top is known as initial setting time of cement.

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 SETTING TIME TEST
B. Final Setting Time Test :
 The final setting time is the point at which the set cement has acquired a
sufficient firmness to resist a certain defined pressure.
 The time from addition of water and when needle’s released is able to make an
impression of depth ≤ 0.5mm due to hardening of paste is the final setting time.
 Most specifications require an initial minimum setting time at ordinary
temperatures of about 45 minutes and a final setting time no more than 10 to 12
hours.

4.SOUNDNESS TEST
After it has set, a cement must not undergo any appreciable expansion, which
could disrupt a mortar or concrete.  Unsoundness can arise from the presence in
the cement of too much free magnesia or hard-burned free lime.

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 A. UNSOUNDNESS DUE TO LIME(Le-Chateliers’s Test)
 In this test cement is mix with water (quantity of water = 0.78 times of the water required for
standard consistency) in a standard manner.
 Put mould on a glass plate and cover mould with a glass plate.Then the whole assembly is
immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours. After 24 hours measure the distance
between the two indicator points.
 Then again submerged mould in water and heat the water and bring to boiling point in
30mins.Then do boiling of mould for 3hours.
 Then remove the mould from hot water and kept mould at room temperature and allow to cool it.
 After cooling of mould measure the distance between the two indicator points such that the
difference between these two measurements does not exceed 10mm.

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 B. UNSOUNDNESS DUE TO MAGNESIA(AutoClave Test)

1. Prepare a standard mould of 25mm*25mm, store it in a moist room for a period of 24 hours.
2.  After 24±0.5 hrs, remove the specimen from the moist atmosphere, measure its length (L 1).
 
3.  place it in the autoclave at room temperature in a rack so that the four sides of each specimen is
exposed to saturated steam vapour during the entire period of test.
4. raise the temp of the autoclave at a rate, so as to make the gauge pressure of the steam to 2.1
N/mm2 in 1 hr from the time heat turned on. This pressure is maintained for 3 hrs.
5. After 3 hrs switch off the autoclave, and let it be cooled at the rate so as to make the pressure less than
0.1 N/mm2 in one hour and bring it to atmospheric pressure by opening vent valve.
6. Then remove the specimen from autoclave and place it in water maintained at a temp of 90 0C. Then
cool the water to 27±20C in 15 minutes. Dry the surface of the specimen and measure its length (L 2).

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 5. STRENGTH TEST

 In this test first, take 555-gram standard sand, 185 mm gram cement (maintain 1:3
cement/sand ratio).
 Prepare a dry mix of cement sand on enamel tray. Properly mix for nearly one minute.
 Then add water of quantity p/4 +3 percent of the combined weight of cement and sand.
Where p = water required to make cement paste of standard consistency.
 Then mix properly. The time of mixing should not be less than 3minutes or not more
than 4minutes. Then the mixed mortar fills in a cube mold of standard size
 Then keep the cube at room temperature, remove the cube after 24hour and immersed
it in clean fresh water.
 Then also make 2cubes as above procedure and keep for curing.
 Then the compression test carried on the first cube after 3days, second cube after
7days and the third cube after 28 days.
 Compressive strength is an average of all three cubes.

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 FIELD TEST

 First, open the bag and see the cement there not have any lumps in cement, and
the color of the cement is similar to greenish-grey.
 Then Put your hand inside the cement bag. And feel cement temperature. The good
cement gives a cool feeling.
 Take in a pinch of cement in your finger and feet it. The cement gives a smooth
feeling. Poor quality cement gives gritty feelings not give a smooth feeling.
 Take one fist of cement and throw it on a water full bucket. The particle of
cement floats on the water before sinking inside the bucket.
 Take a small quantity of water and 100 grams of cement and make a stiff paste of
cement and water. Then make a cake of stiff paste with sharp edges. Put cake of
stiff paste above glass plate. Then take it and keep it underwater inside the bucket.
See the shape of the cake is not disturbed during placing inside water. And also see
After 24-hour stiff paste cake retains its original shape and gains some strength.

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 Environmental Impacts
&
Safety issues

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 • Because of the adverse affects of industrialization the protection of
biodiversity and environment has the highest significance than ever.

• And now manufacturing of cement has its own effects on the environment and
humanity.

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 Percentage of world cement production:

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 Environmental Impacts
 The cement sector is the third largest industrial source of pollution.

 Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages.

 Emitting more than 500,000 tonnes per year of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide
along with CO2 and other greenhouse gases.

 These include :
• Airborne pollution
• Noise and vibration
• Blasting in quarries that may permanently disfigure the local
environment.

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  The cement industry produces about 7% of global man-made CO2
emissions, of which 60% is from the chemical process and 40% from
burning fuel.

 The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900kg of CO2
for every 1000kg of cement produced.

 A Chatham House study from 2018 estimates that the 4 billion tons of

cement produced annually account for 7% of worldwide CO2 emissions.

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 C02 foot print in different industries:

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  Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases  directly through the
production of carbon dioxide i.e. When calcium carbonate decomposes on
heating to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

CaCO3(s)Heat⟶CaO (s)+CO2(g)

 Indirectly through the use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced

from fossil fuels.

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  Health and Environmental Effects of Cement Plant Emissions:

Cement plants are a significant source of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and
carbon monoxide, which are associated with the following health and
environmental impacts:

• Nitrogen oxide (NOx) can contribute to a variety of health problems and

adverse environmental impacts, such as ground-level ozone, acid rain, global
warming, water quality deterioration, and visual impairment. Affected
populations include children, people with lung diseases such as asthma
exposure to these conditions can cause damage to lung tissue.

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• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) in high concentrations can affect breathing and may
aggravate existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease. SO2 is also a primary
contributor to acid deposition acid rain.

• Carbon monoxide (CO) can cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen
delivery to the body's organs and tissues, as well as adverse effects on the
cardiovascular and central nervous systems. CO also contributes to the
formation of smog (ground-level ozone), which can cause respiratory problems.

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 Local impacts:
Producing cement has significant positive and negative impacts at a local level.

• On the positive side, the cement industry may create employment and
business opportunities for local people, particularly in remote locations in
developing countries where there are few other opportunities for economic
development.

• Negative impacts include disturbance to the landscape, dust and noise and
disruption to local biodiversity from quarrying limestone.

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 Safety issues:

• Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them
because not only is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process
is exothermic. As a result, wet cement is strongly caustic (pH = 13.5) and can
easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with water.

• Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause

severe eye or respiratory irritation.

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 Steps to Achieving Better Safety in the Cement Industry

There are many hazards in the cement industry, with the 3 main causes of
fatalities being:

• Traffic & Mobile Plant.

• Falls from heights & falling objects.

• Moving/Starting Equipment

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 There are several key factors to achieving sustainable safety in the cement
industry:

• Establishing Safety Policy, Standards & Safety Rules.

• Implementing a Safety Improvement Plan.

• Employing Managers who:

1. Lead safety.
2. Understand site safety risks and issues
3. Promptly address issues
4. Support supervisors

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 It is interesting to note that the newly developed cement types from Novacem
and Eco-cement can absorb carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening.

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 Literature Review on
Sustainable Cement Production
: Clinker Production

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 1. Introduction
• Today’s annual global cement production has reached 2.8 billion tonnes, and is expected to
increase to some 4 billion tonnes per year.

• Major growth is foreseen in countries such as China and India as well as in regions like the
Middle East and Northern Africa (Fig. 1).

• At the same time, the cement industry is facing challenges such as cost increases in energy
supply, requirements to reduce CO2 emissions, and the supply of raw materials in sufficient
qualities and amounts.

Fig.1 Global cement production

Fig. source: International Energy Agency, [on-line], Cement roadmap targets, 2009. http:// www.iea.org/papers/2009/Cement_Roadmap_targets_viewing.pdf, [Accessed 18 March 2011].

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 2. Clinker Production
2.1 Energy efficiency in clinker production
• Energy demand in clinker production has been significantly reduced over the past few decades.

• Best available techniques (BAT) levels for new plants and major upgrades are 2900 to 3300 MJ/t
clinker, based on dry process kilns with multistage-preheaters and precalciners.

• However the factors involved to further reduce this demand are plant specific.

• The main driver to reduce energy consumption on a global average is kiln size, which is however, in
most cases, not applicable for existing installations.

• Cement plant capacities will remain in the typical range of between 1.5 and 2.5 million t/a, resulting
in typical single clinker production lines between 4000 and 7000 t/d.

Fig.2 Factors affecting the specific fuel energy requirement of cement clinker kilns
Fig. source: p.56 (K. Bauer, V. Hoenig, Energy efficiency of cement plants, Cement International 8 (3) (2010) 148–152.)

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 • In this context, waste heat recovery may play a more important role.

• While in China and Japan boilers for electricity generation are widely integrated to cement kilns, a
growing potential might be raised in other parts of the world.

• Rising electricity prices in combination with decreasing investment costs will result in the further
expansion of this technology in general.

• 30-45 kWh/t of clinker is becoming feasible for recovered energy from bigger kilns.

• The waste heat utilization industry itself is developing technologies to widen the potential for
energy recovery.

• An interesting case for the cement industry is the low temperature waste heat recovery made
possible by using the Organic Rankine cycle, which allows the generation of electrical power even
with smaller volumes of lower temperature flue gas.

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 2.2 Alternative fuels

• The use of alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) for cement clinker production is certainly of
high importance for the cement manufacturer but also for society as a whole.

• Alternative fuel utilisation began in the mid 1980s. Starting in calciner lines, up to almost 100%
alternative fuel firing at the precalciner stage was very quickly achieved.

• Alternative fuels are mainly used tires, animal residues, sewage sludges, waste oil and lumpy
materials.

• The last are solid recovered fuels retrieved from industry waste streams, and to a growing extent
also from municipal sources.

• These refuse-derived fuels are pre-treated light fractions processed by mechanical or air
separation.

• Waste-derived fuels consist of shredded paper, plastics, foils, textiles and rubber and also contain
metal or mineral impurities.

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 Fig3. Standard Variation of calorific values of various fuels

Fig. source: p.44 (R. Wirthwein, B. Emberger, Burners for alternative fuels utilisation: optimisation of kiln firing systems for advanced alternative fuel co-firing, Cement International 8 (4) (2010)
42–46)

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 • In a conventional preheater kiln (without precalciner), it is only possible to burn fuels in the kiln
inlet with substitution rates of up to 25 to 30%. This means that 70 to 75% has to be fired in the
main firing.

• In precalciner kilns usually up to 65% of the total fuel energy input is fired into the calciner and a
minimum of 35% through the main kiln burner.

• As a consequence, in precalciner stage, fluctuations in fuel quality, which can significantly depend
on the type of fuel (fig.3), have less impact on the kiln performance.

• On the other hand, changes or fluctuations in the main kiln firing have a significant effect on kiln
operation and clinker quality.

• While the use of alternative fuels for the production of Portland cement clinker can substitute fossil
fuels, it can have an influence on the clinker properties.

• This can change the temperature profile of the kiln including the sintering temperature, the length
of the sintering zone and the cooling conditions.

• All of these changes can affect different clinker characteristics like the burning grade of the clinker,
the porosity of the granules, the crystal size of the clinker phases or their reactivity.

• Ashes introduced by alternative fuels partly introducing unusual components into the kiln.

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 • A prominent example is phosphorus, mainly contained in meat and bone meal or sewage
sludge.

• Phosphorus oxides (P2O5 =P) is mainly incorporated in crystals of a solid solution of blite (C 2S)
and C3p with the crystal structure of β- , α- or α’- belite.

• Belite with certain amount of C3P- component does not react with free lime at sintering
conditions in the kiln, causing clusters of belite and free lime.

• The influence of phosphorus can have effects on the performance of cements produced with
the clinker, e.g. lower early strength or longer setting time.

Fig. 4. Belite enriched in P2O5 (light gray), interspersed with fine grained
free lime (dark gray)
Fig. source: M. Böhm, R. Pierkes, Evaluation of Portland cement clinker with optical microscopy: case studies, in: B. Middendorf, et al., (Eds.), 12th Euroseminar on Microscopy Applied to

Building Materials, Dortmund 15–19 September 2009, 2009 .

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 2.3 Alternative raw materials

• Raw materials for clinker production are for good reasons primarily based on limestone, clay or its
natural mixture, marl.

• In many cases, alternative raw materials are used mostly as corrective materials.

• Typical examples are given in Table-1.

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 Table 1
Raw materials for clinker production clinker production
Group Material—examples

Ca Limestone/marl/chalk Others, such as:

–Lime sludge from drinking water and sewage treatment
–Hydrated lime
–Foam concrete granulates
–Calcium fluoride

Si Sand
Used foundry sand

Si–Al Clay
Bentonite/kaolinite

Fe Iron ore
Other input materials from the iron and steel industries, such as:
–Roasted pyrite
–Contaminated ore
–Iron oxide/fly ash blends
–Dusts from steel plants
–Mill scale

Si–Al–Ca Granulated blast furnace slag

Fly ash
Oil shale
Trass
Others, such as:
–Paper residuals
–Ashes from incineration processes
–Mineral residuals, e.g. soil contaminated by oil

Al Al Input materials from the metal industry, such as:

–Residues from reprocessing salt slag
–Aluminum hydroxide

S Natural gypsum
Natural anhydrite
Gypsum from flue gas desulfurization

Source: p.8 (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (Ed.), Environmental Data of the German Cement Industry 2009, 2010.)

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• Research has shown that, concrete crusher sand can serve as an alternative material in cement
clinker manufacture.

• Concrete crusher sand has a grading of 0 to 2 mm and is obtained when recycled aggregates are
generated from crushed concrete.

• Its use as a raw material in cement clinker production allows the complete and high-grade recycling
of concrete.

• In addition, uncarbonated hardened cement paste in the concrete crusher sand may additionally
result in CO₂ emission reduction from clinker production.

• The chemical composition of the concrete crusher sands clearly indicates that these materials can
primarily be utilized as a substitute for sand, and can account for an average of 3% of a typical raw
material mix.

• Crusher sands with a higher calcium oxide proportion can additionally be substituted for calcium
agents.

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 • A future challenge of the cement industry is to use more alternative raw materials originating
as byproducts from other industries or directly from other waste streams. One example could
be bottom ash from municipal solid waste incinerators.

• Another topic of alternative material use in cement production is related to gypsum. Besides
the natural deposits, gypsum results as a byproduct from various industrial processes e.g.
desulfurization plants from electrical power production.

• Normally, such synthetic gypsum contains traces of other materials, which might require
adaptations in the manufacturing processes.

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 2.4 Grinding efficiency

• Grinding remains the biggest source of energy consumption in cement production.

• While total electrical energy consumption for cement production is about 100 kWh/t of cement,
roughly two thirds are used for particle size reduction (31,32] (Fig 5).

• The overall efficiency of comminution is between 1% and 5% certainly unsatisfactory.

• Ball mills have been used for over 100 years for milling processes in cement production.

• Fundamental disadvantage of the ball mill is the relatively high specific grinding energy demand.

Fig.5 The use of electrical energy in cement production[6]

Fig. source: p.44 (R. Wirthwein, B. Emberger, Burners for alternative fuels utilisation: optimisation of kiln firing systems for advanced alternative fuel co-firing, Cement International 8 (4) (2010)
42–46

M.Tech (NDT)- PH 613 NITT, INDIA

 • In addition to the ball mill, high pressure grinding systems such as vertical roller mills (VRM) or
high pressure grinding rolls (HPCR) are in use today for cement grinding. The specific energy
demand of these grinding systems is comparatively low, but the cement from high-pressure mills
shows slightly different properties in terms of its particle size distribution (PSD).

• The PSD of cement and/or its components has an important influence on water demand, the
setting behaviour and the strength development of cement in mortar and concrete. The PSD of
the product depends significantly on the mill system used for cement grinding and therefore
especially affects the choice of cement mills.

• With respect to future developments, completely new approaches have been tested and will
certainly be further developed.

• For example, ultrasonic comminution transfers the energy needed for crushing to the material by
acoustic pulses. This method was introduced in 2003. The system has been tested for slag grinding
in model scale only.

• Completely open are developments such as plasma comminution. Plasma comminution is

performed in a liquid by using shock waves. The application is still limited to semiconductor
materials.

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 2.5 Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

• According to different abatement scenarios and the International Energy Agency's recently
published roadmap, the cement industry is expected to contribute to CO 2 mitigation globally by a
set of different measures among which CCS plays a key role.

• At the moment, the costs for CO2 capture are estimated to amount to 20 to 50 €/t CO2. This does
not include additional costs for transport and storage of CO 2 and costs for the potential retrofit of
existing cement technology including necessary switches in fuels and raw material.

• All presently available capture technologies are far from being applicable to the cement industry
due to technical and economic reasons.

• However, some capture technologies seem to be more appropriate for the potential application at
cement kilns than others.

• Oxy-fuel technology relies on oxygen instead of ambient air for combustion i.e. the nitrogen is
removed from the air in a separation plant prior to being applied to the kiln.

• Consequently, the concentration of CO2 in flue gas is increased significantly and for CO2 capture,
only comparatively simple CO2 purification is required.

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 • The most promising post-combustion technology is chemical absorption because operational
experiences exist in several industries and high abatement efficiencies seem to be achievable.

• Calera process in which CO2 is mineralized in an aqueous precipitation process, CO2 reacts with
calcium or magnesium in e.g. brines resulting in carbonates which can be used as building material.
Calera supposedly exhibits a CO2 capture efficiency of 70-90% with a good input conversion.

• Membrane technology also seems to be a candidate for future application at cement kiln.

• Other post combustion measures, e.g. physical absorption or mineral absorption seem to be less
feasible from today’s point of view, because of a lack of selectivity or huge mass streams of mineral
absorbents.

• A technology which is currently used on an experimental level is related to the photosynthesis of

algae. The basic principal of photosynthesis of algae consists of running flue gas from cement kilns
through a reactor which contains water and where algae grow and build up hydrocarbon.

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 References
• https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-mhttps://www.britannica.com/technology/cement-building-materi
al/History-of-cementaterials/cement/10-cement-ingredients-with-functions

• https://www.britannica.com/technology/cement-building-material/History-of-cement

• https://civilread.com/soundness-test-of-cement/

• https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement

• https://www.99acres.com/articles/types-of-cement.html

• https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete

• https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/cement-manufacturing-enforcement-initiative

• https://www.nrdc.org/experts/sasha-stashwick/cut-carbon-and-toxic-pollution-make-cement-clean-and-gre
en

• https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/cement/106-cement-manufacturing-process

• https://youtu.be/7Sg3JtjY2qg

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0008884611000950

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 Thank You

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