INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Intelligent transportation system and traffic safety -

drivers perception and acceptance of electronic speed
checkers
CTN 618: Intelligent Transportation Systems

Presented by:
Aparna Anil, Oshin Agarwal, Soumya Sarkar
Introduction

The aim of this research paper was to examine the drivers'

perceptions and acceptance of electronic speed checkers as a part of
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) to enhance traffic safety.

The study was conducted in Sweden, and drivers were surveyed

using a questionnaire.

The results indicated that most drivers had a positive attitude

towards electronic speed checkers, and they believed that these
devices could contribute to increased safety on the roads.

2
Introduction

Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) can play an important role in

reducing risks and increasing traffic safety. Discussion as to whether a
technological approach or a behavioral approach is the right way to achieve
a safer traffic environment forms a point of departure for this paper.

Increasing and greater concentration of traffic is a large problem in many

residential areas in Sweden

About 20% of the total number of reported accidents in Sweden are caused
by road traffic In 1997, approximately 550 people were killed in traffic in
Sweden, and about 21,000 injured. 

The number of accidents has decreased slightly over the past 15 years, but
is (still) considered to be unsatisfactorily high. 

3
Introduction

For example, for children, aged 0-14, road traffic is the major cause
of accidental death, almost 60% of accidents being the result of
road traffic

In order to increase safety for unprotected road-users such as

children, pedestrians, and cyclists, speed limits have often been
reduced to 30 km/h in traffic environments where many road users
are exposed to high risks.

The general goal of the Swedish traffic safety policy is to eliminate

the number of deaths and casualties in traffic This goal, known as
Vision-0 (meaning 0 injuries and 0 deaths), forms the background
for the present traffic safety program. 

4
Introduction

The program is partly based on the assumption that high speed contributes to
accidents.​

Many researchers support the idea of a positive correlation between speed and traffic
accidents​

Speed reduction can be accomplished by police surveillance, but also through physical
obstacles on the roads​.

However, physical measures are not always appreciated by drivers. These obstacles can
cause damages to cars, they can cause difficulties for emergency vehicles (ambulance,
fire brigade, etc.), and in winter these obstacles can reduce access for snow clearing
vehicles​.

5
Introduction

The major objectives

An alternative to these with ITS are to achieve
physical measures is traffic efficiency, by for
different applications of instance redirecting
Intelligent traffic and to increase
Transportation Systems safety for drivers,
(ITS). pedestrians, cyclists and
other traffic groups.

If measures such as laws

and regulations are One important aspect
taken with the purpose when planning and
of changing traffic implementing traffic
behavior but are not safety programs is
based on thorough therefore drivers'
understanding of acceptance of different
driver’s motives, the safety measures aimed
effects might be far at speed reduction.
from those desired.

6
Introduction

Another aspect is whether the

The purpose of this paper is to describe
individuals acceptance, when there is a
drivers perception and acceptance of an
certain degree of freedom of choice,
electronic device for checking speed, and
might also be reflected in a higher
how they perceive that their own
acceptance of other measures, and
behavior in traffic is affected by the
whether acceptance of safety measures
equipment. The results are based on a
is also reflected in their perception of
field study conducted in Umea, a
road traffic and might reduce dangerous
medium-sized Swedish city, in 1996.
behavior in traffic​.

7
Introduction

The device was installed in the

driver's vehicles, and with
Several drivers tested an
sound and a flashing light it
electronic equipment for speed
warned the driver when he was
checking -an Electronic Speed
exceeding the speed limit (as
Checker (ESC).
opposed to physically reducing
speed).

8
Theoretical Framework

The effectiveness of safety policies is influenced by technology and human

behavior​

In the area of traffic safety, two different approaches to reduce risks and
increase safety are dominant. ​

On the one hand, there is the technological approach that advocates that
mortality and accidents can be reduced by improving environmental
conditions in and/or outside of the vehicle.

On the other hand, there is the rational-choice approach arguing that more
or improved automobile safety results in increased risk taking.

9
Theoretical Framework

In a number of studies it is argued that the effect of a

technological improvement is reduced by the driver’s change in
behavior, a compensatory change towards a more risk-taking
behavior, eliminating the safety increased by technology​

Some argue that the phenomenon of offsetting behavior does

not exist (e.g., Graham, 1984; Houston et al., 1995; Lindgren and
Stuart 1980).

Others argue that off-setting behavior does exist, but that it is

exceeded by the benefits of technological improvements, thus
resulting in increased safety (e.g., Crandall and Graham, 1984;
Evans and Graham, 1991; Peltzman, 1977).

10
Theoretical Framework

Arguments in favor of the technological approach are also found in Lindgren and Stuart
(1980), who, in a study of the adoption of Swedish vehicle safety standards and lower
speed limits, found no evidence of o-setting driver behavior. Findings by Houston et al.
(1995) also support the technological approach​.

In a study of the safety effects of mandatory seat belts, raised minimum legal drinking age
and a 55-mph maximum speed limit, they found that these measures were important in
reducing vehicle accidents.

Their conclusion was that direct efforts to regulate driver behavior resulted in improved
traffic safety.

11
Theoretical Framework

On the other hand, several studies also favor the rational-choice approach. A
study by Pelzman (1975) indicated that o-setting behavior is a reality.

He argued that predictions made in technological studies that highway

deaths would be 20% higher without a number of mandatory safety devices
in automobiles were not correct​

Pelzman study showed that the o-setting effects had occurred to such extent
that the regulation had not decreased highway mortality.

Time-series data showed that there was some saving of car-occupants lives,
but that this effect was negated by the increased number of pedestrian
deaths and more nonfatal accidents.

12
Theoretical Framework

At the same time there was some evidence of increased mortality amongst
some non-occupants, which favored the predictions made by risk-
compensation theorist​.

The authors argued that o-setting behavior seemed to exist but to such low
extent that it is by large exceeded by its life-saving effects, and it may take
several years for any compensatory behavior to achieve a new equilibrium​.

Pelzman also observed that the issue of behavioral response is an empirical

one, and he does not totally close the door on technology approach.

13
Theoretical Framework

Crandall and Graham found that improvements in vehicle

safety reduced fatality rates for car-occupants, but had a
deleterious effect on the fatality rates of non-occupants.

The direct effects of safety improvement for occupants were

swamped by any indirect effects.

However, the indirect effects of safety improvements on speed

decisions played a larger role on non-occupant safety.

14
Theoretical Framework

One finding was that increased seat

belt usage by drivers had an adverse
An interesting aspect of Risa's
effect on several groups of non-
study(1994) is that not only did he
occupants. The theoretical analysis
establish that adverse incentive effects
showed that the level of individual
may occur, but he also highlighted the
prevention activities is sensitive to
importance of addressing the question
different attitudes towards risk, and
of when they are likely to occur​
different types of hazardous
situations.

15
Theoretical Framework

Despite the lack of correspondence between the different studies and approaches,
there seems to be a common denominator. Independent of the approach taken, the
effects of any measure (technological or behaviorist) is dependent on the individual
driver’s acceptance of the measure, and their understanding of its intention, in order to
be successful​.

Risa (1994) emphasized-Changes in fatality rates are explained in these studies by the
aggregated data of, for instance, seat belt use, technical standards of automobiles, the
technical standards of roads and the density of automobiles in the area.

In order to understand how and why and under what circumstances o-setting behavior
might occur, such aggregated data might not always be sufficient.

16
Theoretical Framework

This implies that a change in

one of the components
Perceptions, attitudes and
(perception, attitude, or
behavior form a dynamic and
behavior) should address the
complex system in which all
possibility that additional
components are interrelated.
changes will occur in the other
components.

17
Theoretical Framework

Extensive research has focused on the correlation between attitudes and

behavior (i.e. Wicker, 1969; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977, 1980; Fazio et al., 1989;
Foxall, 1984). Results indicate that there are several factors influencing the
relationship, social norms, level of specificity, (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977;
Bentler and Speckart, 1981), accessibility of attitude (Fazio and Zanna, 1978),
prototypicality of behavior (Lord et al., 1984).​

Studies on the relation between attitude and behavior reveal that a decision
to behave in a certain way is often guided by the individual’s attitude towards
that particular behavior (e.g. Garling, 1994).

18
Theoretical Framework

Extensive research has focused on the

correlation between attitudes and behavior
(i.e. Wicker, 1969; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977,
Studies on the relation between attitude and
1980; Fazio et al., 1989; Foxall, 1984). Results
behavior reveal that a decision to behave in a
indicate that there are several factors
certain way is often guided by the individual’s
influencing the relationship, social norms, level
attitude towards that particular behavior (e.g.
of specificity, (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977; Bentler
Garling, 1994).
and Speckart, 1981), accessibility of attitude
(Fazio and Zanna, 1978), prototypicality of
behavior (Lord et al., 1984).​

19
Theoretical Framework

In order to understand how and why certain behavior occurs, we argue that it is
important to conduct studies on attitudes to, and acceptance of, traffic safety and
traffic behavior with data on an individual level.​

The micro-perspective, as well as including studies on attitudes, can provide essential

knowledge about what effects different traffic safety measures might have, and
provide knowledge on why and under what circumstances such effects might surface.
A better understanding of driver attitude and behavior can serve as a base for a more
successful implementation of new safety measures.

20
Empirical Study

In order to test speed-reducing measures which are alternatives to

physical obstacles, drivers in a residential area in Umea, Sweden, were
asked to test an ESC. The ESC was an in-vehicle, electronic, speed
surveillance device mounted on the vehicle dashboard.​

The ESC was activated on two particular road segments with a 30 km/h
speed limit.​

The speed checker was activated by road-side radio transmitters, and was
linked with the vehicle speed metering system. When the measured
speed exceeded the value received from the road-side transmitters, the
speed-checker signaled with a flashing red light and loud beep.

21
Empirical Study

The objectives of the project were to empirically test the ESC in daily traffic, and to investigate
drivers attitudes to, and acceptance of, an ESC.​

The drivers participating in the test were interviewed on three occasions. The first interview prior to
installment of the ESC.​

The second part of the interview contained questions on safety and risk, and the respondents were
asked what they thought caused the most serious traffic accidents, and if they considered there was
a correlation between traffic and risk. The third part consisted of questions on speed, and in the
fourth part the respondents’ views on safety was in focus. The questions in the concerned attitudes
towards different speed-reducing measures and an ESC in particular.

22
Empirical Study

Two groups of drivers were chosen to participate; private drivers, and

professional drivers such as taxi and bus drivers.​

The reason to include these two groups was to test whether drivers
professionally involved in traffic assessed traffic safety and safety measures
differently than the private driver. A possible difference in attitudes
between these groups is empirically interesting since it might imply
different strategies in implementing safety measures.

23
Empirical Study

The participants consisted of 92 drivers, aged between 25 and 75. The

group of 65 private drivers was randomly sampled from registered car
owners​

The group of professional drivers consisted of 12 taxi drivers and 15

bus drivers​

Participants were contacted by telephone and a short interview was

conducted.

This recruiting interview included questions on the respondents’ age,

household composition, driving habits and general attitudes to traffic
safety and regulation.

24
Empirical Study

The three series of interviews held in August 1996, November

1996, and May 1997 were conducted by mail-back questionnaires.​

The point of departure in the paper is the drivers’ perception of

risk, attitudes to traffic safety and their self-reported behavior.​

There is a discrepancy between what people say they do and

what they actually do, and people often tend to describe their
behavior in relation to what they expect the social norm to be.​

Studies show that there is a correlation between self-

reported behavior and actual behavior.

25
Results-Perception of Risk

Speed and risk: A majority of participants believed that speed was the
major reason for accidents, both in urban traffic and on highways.

Lack of attention and other drivers’ bad driving were also rated as high risk
factors.​

The perceived correlation between speed and risk to the environment

increased during the test period​

However, a contrasting result is that the perceived connection between

speed and risk of accidents decreased during the test period.

26
Results-Perception of Risk

The participants were divided into two groups based on their change in
perception of the relationship between speed and risk.

The group consisted of those who perceived that the relationship became
stronger and the other group consisted of those who perceived a weaker,
or unchanged, relationship after having tested the ESC for nine months.

Having an ESC installed in the automobile for nine months might therefore
be a powerful tool in creating a greater awareness of the connection
between speed, risk and safety.

The second group, where no change in perception of the relationship, or a

weaker relationship, occurred, cannot however be explained here.

27
Results-Perception of Risk
Traffic and risk: The respondents were
asked how they assessed the connection
between traffic in general and risk of
accidents, risk to the public, personal
risk, and risk for the environmental.
Further, they were asked to assess the
connection between these aspects of risk
and their private driving.​
To a larger extent they connected car
traffic with major risk to the
environment, and more than half of the
participants agreed that car traffic
entailed major risk to the environment.
The respondents perceived that their
own driving generated less risk than did
car traffic in general.
28
Results-Perception of Risk

Traffic safety: The respondents’ view of traffic safety

in general in Umea was that safety is higher for car
drivers and pedestrians then it is for cyclists.​

The respondents pointed out that it was the behavior

of the cyclists, rather than the physical traffic
environment, that posed the danger.

29
Results-Perception of ESC

Acceptance of ESC: The participants with a high level of acceptance were more
positive than those with a low level of acceptance towards having an ESC on 30
and 50 km/h roads and they were also more favorable towards an ESC that could
be activated in all urban traffic p < 0:05.

30
Results-Perception of ESC

Perception of different traffic safety measures: Over 90% of the participants

were in favor of information, while only a third of the respondents were in favor
of legislation, and a third also positive towards physical modifications p < 0:001.
This is accentuated by the participants perception of a number of speed-reducing
measures, and the temporal changes of this perception.

31
Results-Perception of ESC

Effects of an ESC: The participants seem to have a belief in the positive effects of
the ESC.
Table 5 shows that even before the equipment was installed, 66% of the
participants indicated that they thought that speed in urban traffic would
decrease if an ESC was active on road segments limited to 30 km/h.

32
Results-Perception of ESC
ESC - helpful tool or big brother?

Approximately 70% of the

Almost half the participants
respondents preferred the
perceived that they had
ESC to physical obstacles such
become more aware of
as road humps, elevated
speed limits after having
pedestrian crossings, and
tested the ESC.​
flower pots on the road.

33
Results-Perception of ESC
ESC - helpful tool or big brother?

The ESC, with the design and function tested in Umea, was
regarded as a helpful tool and safety device, rather than an
uncomfortable and irritating control device.

Only a couple of respondents took exception to the ESC, and

regarded it as an uncomfortable control or an irritating
device.

For three out of four private drivers, and for every second
professional driver, this perception of the ESC as a safety
device had strengthened during the test-period p < 0:05.

34
Perceived effects of the ESC​
Effects on traffic behavior and perception of risk​

The difficulty of keeping to the speed limit, in addition to the respondents’ claim that it
is important to keep the 30 km speed limit, might to some extent explain why so many
were sympathetic towards having an ESC that can be activated on all roads limited to
30 km/h; 85% were in favor while only 10% were clearly negative.​

Table 6 shows that many respondents perceived that it was easier to keep the speed
limit on 30 km/h roads when they had an ESC that is activated, compared to not having
an ESC.

35
Perceived effects of the ESC
Effects of an ESC on other roads.​
It is perceived as somewhat more
difficult to keep to the speed
limits on 50 km/h roads.​
There was a significant difference
between private drivers and
professional drivers in attitude
towards the ESC, and the private
drivers were more positive ± 67%
compared to 22% of the
professional drivers p< 0:001.
36
Conclusion

The participants were sympathetic towards an ESC.

They were positive even before they had tested the

ESC, and this favorable attitude was strengthened
during the test-period.

The ESC was also perceived as a safety-device and as

a helpful tool as an aid to keeping to the speed limit.

37
Conclusion

The results in this study show that the attitudes towards an ESC and self-
reported behavior are positive.

Would these results be valid also in the long term?

Evans and Graham (1991) pointed out that if compensatory behavior is not
immediate, long-term effects will differ from short-term effects.

It may take several years for compensatory effects to emerge. In our study the
participants stated that they had become more aware of speed limits, but
they did not state any behavior that would negate this increased awareness.

38
Conclusions

ESC IS independent of a
technological or a behaviorist
approach, we argue that
acceptance plays an important
role in increasing traffic safety.

It is also interesting to note that

High levels of acceptance for a
the implementation of a new
safety measure or a regulation,
device also has effects on the
followed by a change in
attitudes to existing measures.
behavior, can be partly derived
This might correspond with
from positive attitudes.
unexpected change in behavior.

39
Conclusion

The drivers also reported that they would reduce their speed when
approaching an area where electronic speed checkers were installed,
indicating that these devices could influence drivers' behavior positively. 

However, the study also found that the drivers' acceptance of electronic
speed checkers was influenced by various factors such as age, driving
experience, and perceived risk.

In conclusion, the study highlights the potential of electronic speed checkers

as a part of ITS to enhance traffic safety, but their effectiveness may depend
on how well they are designed and implemented, as well as drivers’
perceptions and acceptance of the technology.​

40
Thanks..

41