S

Bell-Ringer
What do we call the monomer that makes
up DNA?

What two substances make up the DNA

Backbone?

What are the names of the four bases that

make up DNA?
AMAZING DNA
Your DNA contains enough information as
1000, 500 page text books worth of
information.
You are made of 75 trillion cells containing 3
billion base pairs.
Your DNA is 99.9% similar to the person next
to you.
90% similar to a mouse, 60% similar to a fruit
fly,
40% similar to a fish, 50% similar to a banana.
FACTS
Although environment has some impact on
the traits of an organism, DNA has the final
word.
DNA achieves control because it determines
the structure of proteins.
All living things contain proteins and all the
actions of living things depend on proteins
called enzymes.
Discovery of DNA
1950- Protein believed to be genetic material
because of the varying structures
1952- Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
performed experiments with radioactively
labeled viruses that infect bacteria
1952-Rosalind Franklin Xray diffraction of
DNA
1952-1953 Watson and Crick develop double
helix model of DNA
Important Scientists in the
“Race for the Double Helix”
James Watson & Francis Crick (1953)
Created the first accurate model of DNA
Won the Nobel Prize
X- Ray diffraction/ Watson & Crick
Physical Structure (cont’d)
Chains are anti-parallel (i.e in opposite
directions)
Diameter and periodicity are consistent
2.0 nm
10 bases/ turn
3.4 nm/ turn
Width consistent because of
pyrimidine/purine pairing
Physical Structure
DNA Structure
DNA consists of two molecules that are
arranged into a ladder-like structure called a
Double Helix.

A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of

tiny subunits called Nucleotides.

Each nucleotide consists of:

1. Phosphate group
2. Pentose sugar
3. Nitrogenous base
The Sugars
The Bases

PYRIMIDINES

PURINES
 Purines:

Pyrimidines:

RNA only DNA only

DNA Stabilization--H-bonding
between DNA base pair stacks
Nucleotides

Phosphate

Nitrogenous
Base

Pentose
Sugar
Nucleotides
The phosphate and sugar form the
backbone of the DNA molecule, whereas the
bases form the “rungs”.

There are four types of nitrogenous bases.

Nucleotides
A T

Adenine Thymine

C G

Cytosine Guanine
Nucleotides
Each base will only bond with one other
specific base.

Adenine (A)
Form a base pair.
Thymine (T)

Cytosine (C)
Form a base pair.
Guanine (G)
Nitrogen bases
Adenine and Guanine are PURINES. They
have a TWO ring structure.
Thymine and Cytosine are PYRIMIDINES.
Which have a ONE ring structure.
A TWO ring purine always pairs with a ONE
ring pyrimidine.
DNA Structure
Because of this complementary base pairing,
the order of the bases in one strand
determines the order of the bases in the
other strand.
A T

C G

T A

C G

A T

G C

T A
DNA Structure
To crack the genetic code found in DNA we
need to look at the sequence of bases.

The bases are arranged in triplets called

codons.

AGG-CTC-AAG-TCC-TAG
TCC-GAG-TTC-AGG-ATC
DNA Structure
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a
protein.

Each unique gene has a unique sequence of

bases.

This unique sequence of bases will code for the

production of a unique protein.

It is these proteins and combination of proteins

that give us a unique phenotype.
Importance of nucleotide
sequence
A cattail, a cat and a catfish are all different
organism composed of proteins with the
same 4 nucleotides. The difference?
SEQUENCING
 A-T-T-G-A-C has different information
than T-C-C-A-A-A
SANTA and SATAN same letters different
order. EAT vs. ATE, RATS vs. STAR
Order matters!!!!!!
 DNA
Gene
Protein

Trait
Replication of DNA
Each cell in the body has a copy of DNA that
was present in the original fertilized egg of
the zygote.
Before the cell can divide it first makes a
copy of its chromosomes through DNA
replication

ALL organisms undergo DNA replication.

REPLICATION
copyright cmassengale 29
How DNA replicates
DNA unzips and each strand serves as a
template to make a new DNA molecule.

1. Enzyme UNZIPS DNA by breaking weak H-

bonds between Nitrogen bases
2. Free floating nucleotides in nucleus attach to
their base pair with H-bonds
3. Another enzyme bonds new nucleotide to
chain
4. Process continues until entire chain is copied.
Replication cont…
When process is
complete there
are 2 new strands
of DNA ready to
be passed on in
mitosis or
meiosis.
From DNA to PROTEIN
Sequencing of nucleotides in DNA contain
information.
This information is put to work through
proteins.
Proteins fold into complex 3 D shapes and
become key regulators – forming muscle
tissue, enzymes and controlling chemical
reactions.
DNA to Protein
DNA does not leave the nucleus.
So how does DNA get it’s message to the
rest of the body?
DNA needs a messenger to travel to the
cell (endoplasmic reticulum) to make a
protein and then the protein can travel all
over the body.
THE MESSENGER =mRNA
RNA structure
Nucleic Acid that differs from DNA in 3
ways:
Single stranded vs. double stranded
Ribose sugar vs. deoxyribose
Contains URACIL(U) vs. thymine (T)
Transcription
Occurs in the nucleus of the cell.
DNA transcribes its code into a Messenger
RNA molecule.
Steps:
DNA unzips to expose nucleotides
RNA nucleotides match up to
complementary pair
Bonded together to make RNA strand and
mRNA leaves nucleus with directions for the
protein.
Transcription of mRNA
RNA processing
Not all nucleotides in DNA of eukaryotic
cells carry instructions for proteins.
Genes carry long non-coding sequences
called INTRONS (intervening regions)
Regions that contain information that is
expressed are called EXONS.
mRNA copies introns and exons. Enzymes
in the nucleus cut out the introns before the
mRNA leaves the nucleus.
Translation of RNA to
Protein
mRNA leaves the nucleus with the code for
the protein and is attached by ribosomal
RNA to a ribosome (rRNA).
Remember CODONS? Codons are the sets
of 3 that DNA is arranged in. These code for
Amino acids.
There are STOP codons, START codons etc.
They code for the 20 amino acids.
P age 273
Translation
Once mRNA attaches to the ribosome,
transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the
corresponding amino acid at attaches it to
the strand.
tRNA contains the ANTI-CODON to the
code of DNA.
The amino acids attached to tRNA are
bound by peptide bonds which forms the
protein.
Genetic Code
Nucleotide sequence transcribed from DNA
to mRNA is the genetic message. The
complete info for life.
20 AA act like the alphabet for DNA. (26
letters make millions of words.)
64 possible combinations of the 20 AA.
Similar to a computer binary code
001100101000111110
Genetic Changes
Mutations- caused by errors in replication,
transcription, cell division or by external
agents.
Mutations in reproductive cells: Gene
becomes part of the organism
Result:
New trait
Non working proteins
Structural or functional problems
Death of the organism.
Mutations cont…
Mutations in body cells:
Not passed to offspring but may be
harmful to the individual
Result:
Impaired function of the cell- stomach cell that
doesn’t make acid, skin looses elasticity (aging)
Impaired cell division- cancer
Types of mutations
Point mutation- One change in a nucleotide
can change the entire meaning.
The dog bit the cat.
The dog bit the car.

Frame Shift Mutation- A single base pair is

added or deleted. The entire strand shifts
over. Entire protein is changed.

Compare and contrast types of mutations.

Chromosomal Alterations
May occur in meiosis.
Part of chromosome may be lost.
Very common in plants, but can happen in
all organisms.
Homologous chromosomes do not pair or
separate correctly: Down’s Syndrome.
Few mutations actually are passed on
because Zygote usually dies.
Causes of Mutation
May be Spontaneous
Mutagens
Radiation- X rays, UV damage
Chemicals- asbestos, formaldehyde
High Temperature
Repairing DNA
There are many sources of mutagens, ie.
Pollution.
Cells contain “Proof Reading Enzymes” that
can proof read the DNA and replace
incorrect nucleotides with the correct one.
Repairs work well but are not perfect.
Extreme exposure to mutagen may
eventually cause the cell to recognize the
mutation as normal. ie. Skin cancer.
In Conclusion
Hereditary information is located in DNA
DNA consists of nucleotides
DNA molecule consists of two nucleotide
strands twisted into a double helix
The bases of DNA strands pair in a constant
fashion
DNA of one species has specific nucleotide
sequences