Chemical Bonding

CHEMICAL BOND
It is a force that holds groups of two or more atoms together and
makes them function as a unit.
WATER MOLECULE
It is the physical phenomenon of
chemical substance being held
together by the attraction of
atoms to each other through
sharing, as well as exchanging of
electrons or electrostatic force.
 CHEMICAL BOND
Atoms strive to have a full outer Bohr Atomic Model
shell (allowed orbit), which
gives a stable structure. They
may share, give away or receive
extra electrons to achieve
stability. The way atoms will
form bonds with others, and the
ease with which they will do it,
is determined by the
configuration of electrons.
 What causes this forces?
Bonds are formed when
constituent atoms come Example
close enough together
such that the outer
electrons of one atom
are attracted to the
positive nuclear charge
of its neighboring atom. Sodium Fluoride
 Why form chemical bonds?
Atoms interact with one another to form aggregates such
as molecules, compounds, and crystals because doing so
lowers the total energy of the system; that is, the
aggregates are more stable than the isolated atoms.
Bonds are formed when constituent atoms come close
enough together such that the outer electrons of one atom
are attracted to the positive nuclear charge of its
neighboring atom.
Molecular bonding and structure play the central role in
determining the course of chemical reactions, many of
which are vital to our survival.
The type of bonding is determined by how the outermost electrons of
an atom, the so-called valence electrons interact with neighboring
atoms.

The position of
an element in
the periodic
table
determines the
type of bonds it
make.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
IONIC BOND
-results from the transfer of
electrons from one element to
another.
-form between a metal and a
nonmetal.
COVALENT BOND
-results from the sharing of
electrons between two atoms.
-formed when two nonmetals
combine; also formed when a
metalloid bond to a nonmetal.
 IONIC BOND Metal Nonmetal Ionic Compound

When sodium and

chlorine reacts to
form sodium chloride,
electrons are 1
transferred from the 7
sodium atoms to the 11 17

chlorine atoms to Na Metals Cl

form Na- and Cl – Sodium Chlorine

ions, which then Nonmetals

aggregate to form
solid sodium chloride.
 IONIC BOND TABLE SALT
Metal Nonmetal Ionic Compound
When sodium and
chlorine reacts to
form sodium chloride,
electrons are
transferred from the
sodium atoms to the
chlorine atoms to Electron
form Na- and Cl – Configuration 7
ions, which then 1s22s22p63s23p5
aggregate to form
solid sodium chloride. Electron Configuration
1s22s22p63s1 1
 LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
He had offered many of the basic
explanations for the structural
bonding between elements,
including the sharing of a pair of
electrons between atoms and the
tendency of elements to combine
with others to fill their electron
shells according to rigidly defined
Gilbert Lewis orbits.
(1875-1946)
 LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
or “ELECTRON DOT”

Gilbert Lewis
(1875-1946)
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
SCALE
An American Chemist, was the
first to enunciate an
understanding of a physical
interpretation of the bonds
between molecules from a
chemical perspective, and of the
Linus Carl
Pauling nature of crystals.
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY SCALE
Electronegativity – is a measure of the
attraction of a bonded atom for the pair
of electrons in a covalent bond.

Linus Carl
Pauling
 LEWIS Sodium
DIAGRAM Chloride
 SOME COMMON IONIC COMPOUNDS AND
THEIR USES
NAME & CHEMICAL FORMULA USES
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Food preparation; manufacture of chlorine and
sodium hydroxide
Cobalt Chloride (CoCl2) Known as silica gel which absorbs water
Potassium Iodide (KI) Iodine supplement in iodized salt
Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) Antiseptic and Germicide
Sodium Nitrate (NaNO2) Meat preservation additive
Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3) Used in deodorants
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) Used in gunpowder, matches, and fireworks
 Hydrogen Molecule LEWIS
COVALENT BOND DIAGRAM
Nonmetal Nonmetal Covalent Compound
When hydrogen atoms
are close together, the
two electrons are
simultaneously
attracted to both 1
nuclei. The electron
probability increases 1

between the two nuclei H Nonmetals

Hydrogen
indicating that the
electrons are shared by
the two nuclei.
 TWO TYPES OF COVALENT BOND
POLAR COVALENT BOND
- The electrons are unequally shared by the atoms and
spend more time close to one atom than the other.

NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND

- It forms between two atoms of the same element, or between
atoms of different elements that share electrons more or less
equally.

Common Covalent Compounds are water molecule, oxygen molecule, and

different types of alcohol.
 Properties Ionic Compound Covalent
Compound
Conductivity - is a measure of the ease at which an electric charge or Low conductivity Very low
heat pass through a material. conductivity
Hardness - is a resistance of a material to deformation of an indenter Hard because of its Not very hard,
of specific size and shape under known load. crystalline structure though exceptions are
silicon, diamond, and
carbon.
Melting Point - is the temperature at which a material changes from a High Low
solid to a liquid.
Boiling Point - is the temperature at which a material changes from a
liquid to gas.
Volatility - is the tendency of a substance to evaporate at a normal Low High
temperature.
Solubility - is the ability for a given substance, the solute to dissolve in Usually soluble in Usually insoluble in
a solvent. water but insoluble water but soluble in
in organic solvents organic solvents such
such as alcohol, as alcohol, benzene,
benzene, propane propane etc.
etc.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT
COMPOUNDS
Gases, liquids, or solids (made of
molecules)
Atoms share electrons to become stable.
Usually occurs between non-
metals.
Low melting and boiling points, poor
electrical conductors in all phases
Many soluble in non-polar liquids but
not in water
PROPERTIES OF IONIC
COMPOUNDS
Crystalline solids (made of ions)
Metal atoms give electrons while nonmetal
atoms get electrons to become stable.
Usually occurs between metals
and non-metals.
High melting and boiling points conduct
electricity when melted
Many soluble in water but not in non-
polar liquid
 Formation of Ions
What is an ion?
An ION is any
atom or
molecule with a
net charge,
either positive
or negative.
How are
Ions are
formed when a
neutral atom
ions lose or gain
one or more

formed
Sodium Chloride LOSE
electrons.
GAIN

+ -
2 types of Ions
CATION
A positively charged ion; produced when one or more
electrons are lost from a neutral atom.
2 types of Ions
ANION
A negatively charged ion;
produced when a neutral atom gains one or more extra
electrons.
 How does the
How does
Periodic the of
Table
Periodic Table of
Elements help us
Elements help us
what type of ion
what type of ion is
is
formed
formed bybyaagiven
given
atom?
atom?
OXIDATION
NUMBER
- It is the total
number of electrons
that an atom either
gains or loses in order
to form a chemical
bond with another
atom.
Naming of
Ions CATION
A cation is named
simply by adding
the term “ion”
after the name of
the parent atom.
 CATION
A cation is named simply by adding the term
“ion” after the name of the parent atom.

NEUTRAL ATOM CATION

Na (Sodium) Sodium ion/cation
Ca (Calcium) Calcium ion/cation
Al (Aluminum) Aluminum ion/cation
Li (Lithium) Lithium ion/cation
P (Phosphorus) Phosphorus ion/cation
Naming of
Ions
ANION
Anions are named by
taking the root
name of the atom
and changing the
ending with -ide.
 ANION
Anions are named by taking the root name of the atom
and changing the ending with -ide.

NEUTRAL ATOM ANION

F (Fluorine) Fluoride ion
Br (Bromine) Bromide ion
O (Oxygen) Oxide ion
S (Sulfur) Sulfide ion
I (Iodine) Iodide ion
P (Phosphorus) Phosphide ion
 How do we write the chemical
formula of ionic compounds?
The crisscross method is a method of
finding out the chemical formula of a
metal and non-metal that combine to form
an ionic bond.

To use this method, the absolute value of the

oxidation number of the first ion is used as the
subscript of the second, and vice versa. The
subscripts are then reduced by the greatest
common factor.
 IMPORTANCE OF IONS IN OUR BODY
(Ions found outside the cell)
IONS USE SOURCES
Na + Regulates and controls body fluids Salt,
seafood
Ca +2 Important in blood clotting Milk,
mechanism, major cation in the cheese,
bone, heartbeat control, muscle butter,
smoother meats,
vegetables
Mg +2 Needed the body enzymes; involved Green
in the action of nerves and plants, nuts
muscles
Cl - Necessary in gastric juice Salt,
seafood
 IMPORTANCE OF IONS IN OUR BODY
(Ions found outside the cell)
IONS USE SOURCES
Ge +4 Improves the immune system,
oxygen supply in the body, and
Potato, garlic, carrot
destroying free radicals.
I -2 Used to treat and prevent
iodine deficiency and as an
Fish, seaweed,
shrimp,iodized salt,
antiseptic dairy products
P - Formation of bones and teeth Meats, seafood, fish,
nuts
O -2 Gives energy for our cells to Spinach, bell peppers,
work and not only the cells but potatoes, carrots,
also the cell organelles green beans
 IMPORTANCE OF IONS IN OUR BODY
(Ions found inside the cell)
IONS USE SOURCES
HPO4 -2 Found in the body fluids Fish, meats,
and bones cereals, dairy
products
K + Regulates and controls Bananas, orange
body fluids juice, skim milk
O -2 Gives energy for our Spinach, bell
cells to work and not peppers, potatoes,
only the cells but also carrots, green
the cell organelles beans
IONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Do you know that the upper atmosphere contains a
high concentration of positive ions, while the
ground contains negative charges?
The usual ratio is 5 positive ions
is to 4 negative ions. It is the
ratio that life evolves.
Scientific studies showed that if
the natural ratio is upset, it
would be damaging to human
physical and mental well-being. An
overdose of positive ions is bad,
while an overload of negative ions
seems to be beneficial.
IONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Why do you normally feel bad before a storm and
on humid days?
Your grandparents may even say
“it’s going to rain; I can feel
it.” Positive ions are produced
between air masses and between
layers of the wind. On humid and
dusty days, there is an overdose
of positive ions because negative
ions attach themselves to
particles of dust and moisture,
thus losing their charge.
IONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Freshness after the storm?
What do you feel after the storm?
You feel vigorous and refreshed.
The air is fresh and clean. Why
does the feeling of freshness
pervade the air after the storm?
This is because, after the storm,
there is an overdose of negative
ions that ease tension and
pressure. This makes us feel that
we are full of energy.
 IONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE
In the mountains and on the hills, you feel rested. Why?
It is because there is less
dust in the air to consume
the negative ions. By the
seashore and near a
waterfall, you feel good.
The energy of moving water
gives a lot of negative
ions. Niagara Falls are
considered the most amazing
negative ion generator in
the world.
These are only some of the documented evidence in the
research made by America’s Dr. Kruegar and Israel’s
Dr. Sulman on the ion effect
( Soyka, 1977).
The research on the effects of ions has not stopped. It
will probably take a long time before the last word can
be written on the subject. Meanwhile, it will not be
wrong if you consider the role played by ionization as a
physical factor that affects the environment, especially
pollution, health, and the behavior of humans.
Carbon and Organic
Compounds
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
are molecules that
contain carbon atoms
covalently bonded to
hydrogen atoms
and other elements
commonly are: oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus, and the
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
It is the branch of chemistry
that studies the structure,
properties, composition,
reactions and preparations of
carbon-containing compound.
THE CARBON ATOM
 Represent by capital
“C”
 A nonmetal
 Has an atomic number of
6, therefore has 6
protons and electrons
 Found in group IV
 Has 4 valence electrons
THE CARBON ATOM
 The name “carbon” comes
from the Latin word
“carbo” which means “coal
or charcoal”.
 It is the 4th most abundant
element in the universe.
 It is the 15th most
abundant element in the
Earth’s crust.
THE CARBON ATOM
 Each carbon molecule
has four unpaired
electrons in its outer
energy shell.
 Therefore, carbon atoms
can form covalent bonds
with up to four other
atoms, including other
carbon atoms.
 THE CARBON ATOM
 Carbon-based molecules have three fundamental
structures – straight chains, branched chains, and
rings
Straight – Branched – Cyclic alkane
chain alkane chain alkane
 THE CARBON ATOM
LENGTH

BRANCHING

DOUBLE
BOND
POSITION PRESENCE
OF RINGS
COMMON ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Alkanes or a saturated hydrocarbon – a large and
structurally simple class of hydrocarbons includes
those substances in which all the carbon-carbon bonds
are single bonds.
COMMON ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Alkanes/Saturated hydrocarbon
Also called PARAFFIN. The simplest
alkanes are methane (CH4), ethane
(C2H6), and propane (C3H8). The alkanes
are important raw materials of the
chemical industry and the principal
constituent of gasoline and
lubricating oils.
COMMON ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Alkanes/Saturated
hydrocarbon
Natural gas mainly contains
methane and ethane and is used for
heating and cooking purposes. This
gives them a general formula:
COMMON ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Alkenes or unsaturated hydrocarbon – there is a double
bond between two carbon atoms. Alkenes have the general
formula CnH2n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in the
molecule. There is no alkene with only one carbon atom.
 COMMON ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Alkynes – contain only one triple bond between two adjacent
carbon atoms.They have the general formula CnH2n-2, where n
is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
 COMMON ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Alcohols are the organic
compounds in which a hydrogen
atom or an aliphatic carbon is
replaced with the hydroxyl
group (R–O–H). Some alcohols
are antiseptic or disinfectant,
cleaning agents, components of
liquors, and a few are used as
fuel for portable stoves or
other types of burners.
 COMMON ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Carbonyl Compounds are a
functional group consisting of a
carbon atom with a double bond to
an oxygen atom C=O.
Acetone is used as a cleaning
agent like a nail polish remover,
and formaldehyde is used in
preserving organic materials like
an animal specimens.
THE CARBON ATOM
Carbon is a highly
stable element that can
combine with almost any
other element to form a
few useful compounds.
Its major source is the
deposits of coal that
are buried deep inside
the earth.
 ALLOTROPY
Existence of a chemical element in two or
more forms, which may differ in the
arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids or
in the occurrence of molecules that contain
different numbers of atoms.
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON ATOM
 ALLOTROPE:
DIAMOND
It is the most well-known
carbon allotrope. Diamond
exhibits the highest hardness
and thermal conductivity of
any bulk material. The surface
of diamond is lipophilic and
hydrophobic. Diamonds do not
generally react with any
chemical reagents, including
strong acids and bases
 ALLOTROPE:
GRAPHITE
It is an electrical
conductor and a semimetal.
Graphite is the most stable
form of carbon under
standard conditions and is
used in thermochemistry as
the standard state for
defining the heat of
formation of carbon
 ALLOTROPE:
FULLERENES
It is also called buckyballs are
molecules of varying sizes
composed entirely of carbon that
take on the form of hollow
spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes.
Buckyballs and buckytubes have
been the subject of intense
research, both because of their
unique chemistry and for their
technological applications,
especially in materials science,
electronics, and nanotechnology.
 ALLOTROPE:
CARBON NANOTUBES
A cylindrical carbon
molecule that
exhibits
extraordinary
strength and unique
electrical properties
and is an efficient
conductor of heat.
 ALLOTROPE:
GRAPHENE
It is a single layer of
graphite and has
extraordinary electrical,
thermal, and physical
properties. It can be
produced by epitaxy on an
insulating or conducting
substrate or by mechanical
exfoliation (repeated
peeling) from graphite.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
1. Color – the quality of a material or substance with
respect to light reflected by the object.
2. Hardness – the ability of a material to resist
deformation.
3. Conductivity – the ability of a material to conduct
heat, electricity, or sound.
4. Brittleness – the property of a material that
fractures when subjected to stress but has a little
tendency to deform before rupture.
5. Phase – one of the forms in which matter can exist,
such as solid, liquid, or gas.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
LIGHT

Diamond is highly Graphite is

transparent. opaque and
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
HARDNESS

Diamond is hard. Graphite is

soft.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
CONDUCTIVITY

Diamond has low Graphite and Carbon nanotubes

electric graphene are very have unique
conductivity, but good conductors of electrical
with high heat heat and properties and are
conductivity electricity. efficient conductors
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
CONDUCTIVITY

Fullerene has high heat Glassy or vitreous carbon has

and electric low electrical resistance and
conductivity. low thermal resistance.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
BRITTLENESS

Diamond and graphite are very brittle and cannot be

rolled into wires or pounded into sheets.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBON
PHASE

All allotropes of carbon are solid under

the normal condition: Diamond, Graphite,
Graphene, Nanotubes, Fullerene
WHY IS CARBON ATOM UNIQUE?
1. It has 4 valence electrons that enable it to
form 4 covalent bonds.
2. It can bond with other carbon atoms and other
non-metal atoms in many ways.
3. It can form single, double, and triple bonds.
4. It can form long carbon-carbon chains; one
atom in the chain can result to another molecule.
5. It does not only bind to each other in a
straight chain but can result also to rings and
other geometrical arrangements.
 PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
The physical properties of organic
compounds both include quantitative and
qualitative features.

1. Quantitative Properties of Organic

Compounds (Melting Point, Boiling Point, and
Index of Refraction)
2. Qualitative Properties of Organic
Compounds (Odor, Viscosity, Volatility,
Flammability)
 PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Quantitative Properties of Organic Compounds
 PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Quanlitative Properties of Organic Compounds
CARBON FOUR MAIN REACTIONS
1. COMBUSTION
REACTION –
happens when
carbon burns in
air, it gives
carbon dioxide,
heat, and light. BURNING OF WOODS
CARBON FOUR MAIN REACTIONS
2. OXIDATION
REACTION –
Carbon and its
compounds are
oxidized in the
presence of RUSTING OF IRON
oxygen OR METAL
CARBON FOUR MAIN REACTIONS
3. ADDITION
REACTION –
Carbon has the
ability to make
long strings or
chains of Hydration: Ethene + Water

atoms. = Ethanol
(ethyl alcohol or drinking
alcohol)
CARBON FOUR MAIN REACTIONS
4. SUBSTITUTION
REACTION – is a
reaction in which
a functional
group in a
compound is
replaced by When Chlorine atoms in Methyl
Chloride are displaced by the
another hydroxide ion, forming Methanol
(methyl alcohol or non_x0002_drinking
alcohol).
 Uses of Carbon Atom
 Carbon (in the form of coal, which is mainly carbon) is used as fuel.
 Graphite is used for pencil tips, high - temperature crucibles, dry cells,
electrodes, and a lubricant.
 Diamonds are used in jewelry, and because they are so hard, they used them
for cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing
 Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink
 Carbon can form alloys with iron, of which the most common is carbon steel.
 The 14C radioactive isotope is used in archaeological dating
 Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, is used in the manufacture of many
fizzy and carbonated drinks. It is also used in fire extinguishers
 Dry ice, which is the solid form of carbon dioxide, is used as a cooling
agent.
 Freon is used in cooling systems and devices like refrigerators and air
conditioners.
 Vegetal carbon, which is an amorphous form of carbon, is utilized as a
bleaching agent and a gas absorbent.
 Carbon is used in the rim of automobiles as a black fume pigment.
Role of Carbon in the Body
“Carbon is approximately 18% of a human’s body
weight. Carbon is not found in the pure form in the
body, but rather in compounds inside the body. The
air that we inhale is about 20 % oxygen while the
air that we exhale is a lot less oxygen and more
carbon dioxide.
Carbon is the basic building block required to form
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and it plays a
crucial role in regulating the physiology of the
body. Sugars in the body like glucose hold carbon
elements, and carbon is also ingested into the body
by consuming carbohydrates”
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
There are four main types or classes of organic
compounds found in all living things:
1. CARBOHYDRATES
- Carbohydrates are
organic compounds made
of the elements carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
- The ratio of hydrogen
atoms to oxygen atoms
in carbohydrate
molecules is 2:1.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
- Carbohydrates are the
largest class of
organic compounds
found in organisms.
- Organisms use
carbohydrates as energy
sources, structural
units, and for other
purposes.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are classified according to how
many subunits they contain.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
Simple carbohydrates are called sugars.

Monosaccharide
(one unit)
Disaccharide
(two units)
Polysaccharide
(long chain)
1. CARBOHYDRATES
The functions of
carbohydrates are:
 acts as main
source of energy
 plants and
animals use it for
structural
purposes.
 2. LIPIDS
- Lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms.
 2. LIPIDS
- Lipids have higher hydrogen to oxygen
ratio than is found in carbohydrates.
 2. LIPIDS
- The 3 major groups of lipids are triglycerides
(fats, oils, waxes), steroids, and
phospholipids.
 2. LIPIDS
- In most human
health
situations, the
composition of
unsaturated fats
is preferred to
the consumption
of saturated
fats.
 2. LIPIDS
- Saturated fats
are solid at room
temperature and
bad for you,
while unsaturated
fats are liquid
at room
temperature and
are better for
 2. LIPIDS
The functions of
lipids are:
 store energy
for long term.
 Waterproof
covering.
 3. PROTEINS
Proteins consist
of hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon,
and nitrogen
atoms.
 3. PROTEINS
Some proteins
contain other
atoms, such as
sulfur,
phosphorus,
iron, copper, or
magnesium.
 3. PROTEINS
Proteins
consist of
chains of
amino acids
called
peptides.
 3. PROTEINS
The functions of
proteins are:
Cellular
structures
Controls
substances in and
out of cell.
Fight diseases
 4. NUCLEIC ACID
Nucleic acids are the
molecules in our
cells that direct and
store information for
reproduction and
cellular growth.
4. NUCLEIC ACID
There are two types
of nucleic acids:
1. Ribonucleic Acid
(RNA)
2. Deoxyribonucleic
Acid (DNA)
4. NUCLEIC ACID
Both nucleic acids
are unbranched
organic polymers
composed of monomer
units called
nucleotides.
 4. NUCLEIC ACID
These nucleotides are
composed of a sugar
molecule, a nitrogen
base, and phosphoric
acid.