skeletal system

introduction
The skeleton is the body’s structural framework
The main functions of the skeleton:
1. SUPPORT – provides the internal framework of body
2. PROTECTION – protects soft organs (cranium, rib
cage)
3. MOVEMENT – bones act as levers; muscles attach to
bone by tendon & pull bones into position
4. STORAGE – fats & minerals
5. BLOOD CELL FORMATION – occurs within the
bone marrow
introduction
The skeletal system is further divided into:
 the axial skeleton - consisting of the bones of the
skull, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage
the appendicular skeleton - consists of the bones of the
upper and lower extremities along with their associated
girdles
introduction
We are born with 270 bones in our bodies, and even
more bones form during childhood. By the time we
reach adulthood though, several separate bones have
fused together so that the number of our bones has
decreased to around 206, which make up the adult
skeletal system.
An example of this reduction occurs in each half of our
pelvis, where three separate bones— the ilium, the
ischium, and the pubis—fuse into one single bone called
the os coxa.
introduction

The skeleton is composed of two of the supportive

tissues:
BONES
CARTILAGE
CARTILAGE
 Cartilage is a form of
connective tissue. It is semi
rigid yet flexible. It forms
parts of the body where more
flexibility is required. For
example the joints between
bones, where the costal
cartilage attaches the rib to
the sternum, the ear, the nose,
the elbow, the knee, the
ankle, and the intervertebral
discs.
CARTILAGE

 The amount of cartilage in the human body varies with age. A young person has more cartilage
than an elderly person. Cartilages are composed of cells called chondrocytes that produces
extracellular matrix called collagen. Cartilage does not have any blood vessels.
BONES

Bones make up most of

the skeleton.
BONES
They are living tissue and are the hard form of connective tissue.

Bones provide:

 Support for the body

 Protection for vital structures
 Mechanical of basic movement
 Mineral storage
 Blood production
BONES
 The bone is covered by a fibrous connective tissue called the periosteum. 
BONES
There are two types of bones:
Compact bone
 the hard densely packed hard outer layer of
bone. It surrounds spongy bone.
 provides strength for weight bearing.

Spongy bone
 found in the inside of bone and at the end of
long bones.
 It’s the weak part of bone and it’s where bone
marrow is found.
BONES

 Bone classification by shape

 Long bones
 Short bones
 Flat bones
 Irregular bones
 Sesamoid bones
BONES
 Bone classification by shape
 Long bones -tubular. These includes are the bones of the
humerus, femur and tibia. 
 Short bones - cube like and are found only in the ankle
and wrist.
 Flat bones -plate-like and serves protective functions.
They are bones of the skull, ribs and scapulae.
 Irregular bones -as the name suggests, varies in shape.
They can be long, short or flat. They are found in the
bones of the face. 
 Sesamoid bones -round and they develop in certain
tendons and are found where tendons cross the ends of
long bones. They include the knee cap or patella.
Sesamoid bones protect the tendon from excessive wear.
Bone classification by shape

FLAT BONES
Bone classification by shape

FLAT BONES

– thin, flat or slightly curved

Bone classification by shape

IRREGULAR BONES
Bone classification by shape
IRREGULAR BONES
no particular pattern
Vertebrae, pelvic, scapula
Bone classification by shape

SHORT BONES
Bone classification by shape
SHORT BONES
- cube shaped - Carpals (wrist) and tarsals (ankle)
Bone classification by shape

SESAMOID BONES
Bone classification by shape

SESAMOID BONES
Bone classification by shape

LONG BONES
STRUCTUR
E OF A
LONG
BONE
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
Each long bone consists of a central shaft, called the diaphysis, and two ends, each called an
epiphysis (growing upon). A thin layer of articular cartilage covers the ends of the epiphyses
where the bone articulates (joins) with other bones.
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

A long bone that is still growing has

an epiphyseal plate, or growth plate,
composed of cartilage, between
each epiphysis and the diaphysis.
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

The epiphyseal plate is where the

bone grows in length. When bone
growth stops, the cartilage of each
epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone
and becomes an epiphyseal line
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
Bones contain cavities, such as
the large medullary cavity in the
diaphysis, as well as smaller
cavities in the epiphyses of long
bones and in the interior of other
bones. These spaces are filled
with soft tissue called marrow.
Yellow marrow consists mostly
of adipose tissue. Red marrow
consists of blood-forming cells
and is the only site of blood
formation in adults.
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
Children’s bones have
proportionately more red marrow
than do adult bones because, as a
person ages, red marrow is
mostly replaced by yellow
marrow. In adults, red marrow is
confined to the bones in the
central axis of the body and in
the most proximal epiphyses of
the limbs.
 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
Most of the outer surface of bone is
covered by dense connective tissue
called the periosteum (peri, around +
osteon, bone), which contains blood
vessels and nerves. The surface of the
medullary cavity is lined with a
thinner connective tissue membrane,
the endosteum (endo, inside).
BONE MARKINGS

These are the bumps, holes, and ridges that cover the
bones of the body
Bone markings represent the points of attachment for
muscles, the structures responsible for forming
joints, and the openings through which vessels and
nerves pass.
BONE MARKINGS

PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES – structures that

grow out of the bone for the attachment of muscles,
tendons & ligaments or to form a joint
DEPRESSIONS OR CAVITIES indentations in bone
for the passage of nerves & blood vessels
BONE MARKINGS
PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES – Serve as muscle and ligament attachment:
 Tuberosity- Large rounded projection or a collection of roughened lumps

Crest- narrow ridge of bone that is usually prominent

Trochanter- large, blunt, irregular shaped processes

BONE MARKINGS
PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES – Serve as muscle and ligament attachment:
Line- thin, narrow ridge of bone, usually less prominent than a crest
Tubercle- Small rounded projection or process

Epicondyle- raised area on or above a condyle

Spine- sharp, slender, process or projection that is typically pointed
Process- any bony projection
BONE MARKINGS
PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES –
Form joints:
Head- Enlarged portion of a bone typically
carried on a narrow neck

Condyle- rounded surface that serves as a point

of articulation

Facet- smooth and often flat articulating surface

Ramus- arm-like bar or projection of bone

BONE MARKINGS
DEPRESSIONS OR CAVITIES
Depressions and openings that allow passage of blood vessels and
nerves:
 Groove- a furrow or ditch-like structure
 Fissure- a narrow slit-like crack or opening
 Foramen- a round or oval opening through a bone
 Notch- indentation at the edge of a structure or bone.
BONE MARKINGS
OTHERS
Meatus- canal or channel-like passageway
Sinus- bone cavity or space within a bone
Fossa- shallow depression in the surface of a bone.
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE

 Osteon (Haversian system) – A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix
rings
 Central (Haversian) canal – Opening in the center of an osteon
– Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal – Canal perpendicular to the central canal

– Carries blood vessels and nerves

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE

 Lacunae – Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)

– Arranged in concentric rings
 Lamellae – Rings around the central canal
– Sites of lacunae
 Canaliculi – Tiny canals
– Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
– Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a
nutrient supply
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE
BONE GROWTH
 Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone
lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue. As
osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of
bones between the periosteum and the existing bone
matrix, the bone increases in width, or diameter. This
process is called appositional growth. Growth in the length
of a bone, which is the major source of increased height in
an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
 BONE
GROWTH
 This type of bone growth
occurs through
endochondral ossification
 Chondrocytes increase in
number on the epiphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate.
They line up in columns
parallel to the long axis of
the bone, causing the bone
to elongate. Then the
chondrocytes enlarge and
die.
 BONE
GROWTH
 The cartilage matrix becomes ­
calcified. Much of the cartilage
that forms around the enlarged
cells is removed by osteoclasts,
and the dying chondrocytes are
replaced by osteoblasts. The
osteoblasts start forming bone
by depositing bone lamellae on
the surface of the calcified
cartilage. This process produces
bone on the diaphyseal side of
the epiphyseal plate.
OSTEOGENESIS
Intramembranous ossification

Endochondral ossification
Intramembranous ossification
 Although intramembranous
ossification is the source of flat
bones, this process also
contributes to the growth of short
bones and thickening of long
bones. Interstitial membranous
ossification takes place within a
condensation of mesenchymal
tissue. The process begins when
multiple groups of cells
differentiate into osteoblasts in a
primary ossification center.
Intramembranous ossification
 Osteoid is synthesized and then
mineralized surrounding the
osteoblasts, which then become
osteocytes. When these ossification
centers fuse, a loose trabecular
structure known as primary
spongiosa is formed. Subsequently,
blood vessels grow into the
connective tissue between the
trabeculae. Bone marrow stem
cells from the circulating blood
then give rise to hematopoietic
cells.
Intramembranous ossification
 Growth and fusion of several
ossification centers (see the image
below) eventually replace the original
mesenchymal tissue. In flat bones,
compact bone is formed at both the
internal and external surfaces due to a
marked predominance of bone
deposition over bone resorption,
whereas a spongy pattern remains in the
central portion. The endosteum and
periosteum are formed from layers of
connective tissue that are not
undergoing ossification.
Endochondral ossification

 Endochondral ossification (see the image below) is responsible

for the formation of the short and long bones. This process takes
place within a hyaline cartilage model, which provides a
template of the shape of the bone to be formed.
Endochondral ossification
 Endochondral ossification in a primary
ossification center of a fetal chondral
model. The chondrocytes are
hypertrophic. Early calcification starts
in the matrix between the chondrocytes.
The surface of the chondral model is
covered by perichondrium, which later
becomes the periosteum.
Endochondral ossification
 Endochondral ossification can be
divided into 2 phases. In the first phase,
chondrocytes of the model are
hypertrophic and degenerated, and then
the intervening chondroid matrix is
calcified. In the second phase,
osteogenic buds, composed of
osteoprogenitor cells and blood
capillaries, invade the spaces left by the
degenerating chondrocytes.
Endochondral ossification
 Osteoblasts arise from osteoprogenitor cells and lay down a layer of
rapidly mineralized osteoid on the surface of calcified cartilage. The
complex structure of calcified cartilage with overlying newly bone thus
formed is known as the primary spongiosa, which is later remodeled to
become lamellar bone (secondary spongiosa). Calcified cartilage
remnants are resorbed by chondroclasts, which are structurally and
functionally equivalent to osteoclasts, except that chondroclasts work on
cartilage rather than bone. Thus, the cartilage model is gradually replaced
by bone and marrow cavities.
Endochondral ossification
 Long bones are formed from cartilaginous models. The primary
ossification center is initiated by intramembranous ossification that is
produced by the deep portions of the perichondrium that surround the
diaphysis. A bone collar is thus formed, blocking the nutrient diffusion
and leading to the degeneration of internal chondrocytes. The
perichondrium then becomes the periosteum, from which the osteogenic
bud arises and penetrates the calcified cartilage matrix through passages
that are created in the bone collar by osteoclasts.
Endochondral ossification
 The primary ossification center expands longitudinally and is associated with the
growth of the periosteal bone collar. Osteoclasts are activated at the beginning of the
process, resorb the bone at the center, and hence create the marrow cavity. At a later
stage of bone development, a secondary ossification center arises at the center of each
epiphysis. Unlike primary ossification, which expands in a longitudinal fashion, the
secondary ossification center grows in a radial fashion. Furthermore, a bone collar is
not formed in the area of articular cartilage due to the absence of perichondrium in this
area. Thus, the epiphysis of the chondroid model is replaced by bone tissue, except the
articular cartilage and the epiphyseal cartilage.
Endochondral ossification
 Epiphyseal cartilage is located between the epiphysis and the metaphysis and is responsible for the
longitudinal growth of bone. It can be divided into 5 zones, starting from the epiphyseal side of
cartilage, as follows:
 Resting zone – This zone consists of small chondrocytes.
 Proliferative zone – The proliferative zone consists of rapidly dividing chondrocytes in columns that are
parallel to the long axis of the bone, resulting in interstitial growth of cartilage. The chondroid matrix is
laid down, and mitotic figures may be detected.
 Hypertrophic zone – This zone consists of large chondrocytes that contain abundant cytoplasmic
glycogen. In the hypertrophic zone, chondrocytes mature and degenerate, with associated chondroid
matrix resorption.
 Calcified cartilage zone (zone of provisional calcification) – This zone is where chondrocytes die.
Chondrocyte death is followed by blood vessel invasion and bone deposition on the calcified cartilage.
 Ossification zone – The ossification zone is where primary spongiosa forms by rapidly mineralized
osteoid that is laid down on the calcified cartilage septa
Endochondral ossification
 During growth, the epiphyseal plate normally
 Primary spongiosa in the ossification zone
of growth plate. The osteoid is deposited
at the periphery of calcified cartilage.
does not change in thickness because the rates
of proliferation and destruction are
approximately equal. It is simply replaced
away from the middle of the diaphysis,
resulting in longitudinal growth of the bone.
When the epiphyseal plate closes, between
ages 16 and 20 years, the longitudinal growth
of bones becomes impossible, although
widening may still occur through appositional
growth.
JOINTS
JOINTS
 A “connection” between 2 or more bones
 A pivot point for bony motion
 The “features” of the joint help determine
 The ROM
 Degrees of freedom
 Functional potential of the joint
JOINTS FUNCTIONS
 Serve as functional junctions between bones.
 Bind bones , strokes , and other related tissues
together.
 Allow bone growth to occur .
 Permit certain structures to change shape during
childbirth (i.e. pubic symphysis).
 Enable the body to have movements, lever actions,
and body posture
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 a) Fibrous joint -- uses fibrous connective tissue to articulate
bones.
 b) Cartilaginous joint -- uses hyaline cartilage and/or
fibrocartilage to articulate bones.
 c) Synovial joint -- uses auricular cartilage, synovial membrane,
joint capsule, and ligaments to articulate bones.
 According to the amount of movement at the joint:
 a) Synarthrotic joint -- immovable joint.
 b) Amphiarthrotic joint -- immovable joint.
 c) Diarthrotic joint -- freely movable joint.
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 Fibrous joint
 Occur between bones that have close case contact ( e.g. cranial bones, tibia
and fibula, ulna and radius).
 Fibrous connective tissue fastens the bones tightly.
 Small amount of movement (amphiarthrosis) or no movements at all is
possible (synarthrosis).
 Subdivided into:
 -- Syndesmosis = uses interosseous ligaments; amphiarthrotic (e.g. distal
end of tibia and fibula).
 -- Suture = uses sutural ligaments; synarthrotic (e.g. cranial sutures in the
skull).
 -- Gomphosis = uses periodontal ligaments; synarthrotic (e.g. joining teeth
to maxilla and mandible).
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 Fibrous joint
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 Cartilaginous joint
 Hyaline cartilage and/or fibro cartilage form the joint.
 Usually slightly movable (amphiarthrotic) and very strong.
 Subdivided into:
 -- Synchondrosis = uses hyaline cartilage, synarthrotic(e.g. between the
first rib and manubrium).
 --Symphysis = uses hyaline cartilage at the ends of bones, and a layer
of fibrocartilage at the center; amphiarthrotic (e.g. intervertebral disk,
pubic symphysis).
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 Cartilaginous joint
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 Synovial joint
 Most joints are synovial joints.
 Usually freely movable (diarthrotic).
 Contain articular cartilage (at the ends of bones), joint capsule
(fibrous connective tissue surrounding the joint), and synovial
membrane (inner lining of the joint capsule).
 Subdivided into:
 -- gliding = allows back and forth movement (e.g. carpals sliding onto
one another during wrist movements).
 -- hinge = allows folding movement (e.g. elbow joint).
 -- pivot = allows rotation around an axis (e.g. between atlas and axis at
the odontoid process).
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
-- condyloid = allows all
movements except rotation (e.g.
between metacarpals amid
proximal phalanges).
-- saddle = allows all movements
except rotation (e.g. between
carpals and metacarpals).
-- ball - and - socket = allows all
movements (e.g. shoulder joint
and hip joint).
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 According to the type of tissue at the joint:
 Synovial joint
 Have 5 distinguishing features
 Articular cartilage – glassy – smooth articular cartilage covers the
opposing bone surface . it resists wear and minimizes friction.
 Joint cavity – space that is filled with Synovial fluid. Synovial
membrane – covers all the surface within the joint capsule and secretes
synovial fluid.
 Articular capsule – the joint cavity is enclosed by a double – layered
articuller capsule.
 Synovial fluid – a slippery fluid that occupies all free spaces within the
joint capsule.
 Reinforcing ligaments – are reinforced by a number of ligaments.
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 SHOULDER JOINT
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 SHOULDER JOINT
 Ball and Socket joint
 Ligaments:
 a) Coracohumeral ligament – connects the coracoid process of scapula to
the greater tubercle of the humerus.
 b) Glenohumeral ligament – extend from the edge of glenoid cavity to
lesser tubercle of humerus
 c)Transverse humeral ligament – runs between the lesser and the greater
tubercles.
 d) Coracoacromial ligament.
 E) Glenoid labrum – attaches along the margin of glenoid cavity
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 SHOULDER JOINT
 Rotator cuff : muscles that
Encircle the shoulder joint.
 made up of 4 muscles:
 Subscapularis

 supraspinatus

 infarspinatus

 teres minor
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 ELBOW JOINT
 Hinge joint
 ligaments:
 Annular ligament: surrounds the head of radius, and attaches to the trochlear
notch of ulna
 Ulnar collateral ligament:
* Ant. end of ligament connects the medial epicedial of humerus to the
medial margin of the coronoid process of the ulna
* Post. end – attaches the medial epicondyle of humerus to the olecranon
process of the ulna.
 Radial collateral ligament: extends between lat. Epicondyle of humerus and
the annular ligament of the radius.
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 ELBOW JOINT
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 KNEE JOINT
 largest synovial joint; Hinge joint
 Ligaments – associated with joint capsule:
 Patellar ligament – is continuation of the tendon of quadriceps femoris
muscle; extends from patella to tibial tuberosity.
 Oblique popliteal ligament – is continuation of the tendon of
semimembraneous muscle crossing the posterior knee joint. This ligament
connects the lat. condoyle of the femur to head of tibia.
 Arcuate popliteal ligament – extends from lat .condoyle of femur to head of
fibula.
 Tibial collateral ligament (medial collateral ligament) - connects medial
condyle of femur to the medial condyle of tibia.
 Fibular collateral ligament (lateral collateral ligament) – connects lateral
condyle of femur to head of fibula
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 KNEE JOINT
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 KNEE JOINT
 Intercapsular ligaments: are within the joint
and include the Anterior & Posterior
Cruciate ligaments.
 * Ant. cruciate: extends from the ant.
intercondylar area of tibia to lat. condyle of
femur
 * post. cruciate: extends from the post.
Intercondylar area of tibia to the medial
condyle of femur.
 Menisci – Interarticular fibrocartilage
separating the articular surfaces of tibia and
fibula
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 HIP JOINT
 Ball and socket joint
 Ligaments:
Iliofemoral ligament – connects the Anterior inferior iliac spine to
intertrochanteric line between lesser and greater trochanter).
Pubofemoral ligament – extends between the superior portion of
pubis and the iliofemoral ligament.
Ischiofemoral ligament – extends from ischium to the joint capsule
itself.
JOINTS CLASSIFICATIONS
 HIP JOINT
JOINT
MOVEMENT
JOINT
MOVEMENT
JOINT
MOVEMENT
JOINT
MOVEMENT
Homeostatic Mechanisms of Bones
 We have about 3 lb of calcium in our body
 Ca is needed for daily cell functions
 Lowering your Ca level too much can lead to death
(rare)
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- works to elevate Ca in
the body
THANK YOU!!!