1.

4 MEMBRANE
TRANSPORT
Essential idea
Membranes control the composition of
cells by active and passive transport
UNDERSTANDINGS
INTRODUCTION
•Cells need to
both import
and export
material for
their survival
INTRODUCTION
• Materials
essential for cell
metabolism,
including glucose,
hormones and
ions, are imported
INTRODUCTION
• Waste products that
are toxic to the cell, as
well as useful
substances that need
to be secreted, such
as enzymes and
hormones, are
exported
INTRODUCTION
• Cell membranes
have two key
characteristics that
regulate the import
and export of
materials into the
cell
FEATURES OF CELLS MEMBRANES THAT HELP TO
REGULATE IMPORT AND EXPORT OF MATERIALS
• They are partially-permeable
(only certain materials may
freely cross – large and
charged substances are
typically blocked)
• They are selective
(membrane proteins may
regulate the passage of
material that cannot freely
cross)
MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES
ACROSS MEMBRANES
Particles move across membranes by simple
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES
ACROSS MEMBRANES
• Movement of materials
across a biological
membrane may occur
either by
• Passive transport
or
• Active transport
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
PASSIVE
TRANSPORT
• Passive transport
involves the movement
of material down a
concentration gradient
(high concentration to
low concentration)
without the expenditure
of energy (ATP
hydrolysis)
TYPES OF PASSIVE
TRANSPORT
TYPES OF PASSIVE
TRANSPORT
• There are three main
types of passive
transport:
• Diffusion
• Facilitated
diffusion
• Osmosis
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Active transport involves
the movement of
materials against a
concentration
gradient (low
concentration to high
concentration) with the
expenditure of energy
(e.g. ATP hydrolysis)
TYPES OF ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• There are three main
types of active
transport:
• Direct active
transport and
• Bulk transport
METHODS OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT
ACROSS MEMBRANES
DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is the net
movement of particles
from a region of their
higher concentration to a
region of their lower
concentration down a
concentration gradient,
as a result of their
random movement
DIFFUSION
• The random
movement is
caused by the
natural kinetic
energy (energy of
movement) of the
molecules or ions
DIFFUSION
• As a result of
diffusion, molecules
or ions tend to reach
an equilibrium
situation, where they
are evenly spread
within a given volume
of space
FACTORS AFFECTING
THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION
• The factors that affect the
rate of diffusion are:
• Steepness of the
concentration gradient
• Temperature
• Surface area across
which diffusion takes
place
• Nature of the molecules
HOW STEEPNESS OF
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
AFFECTS THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
HOW STEEPNESS OF CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
AFFECTS THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

• Concentration
gradient is the
difference in the
concentration of the
substance on the
two sides of the
surface
HOW STEEPNESS OF CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
AFFECTS THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

•The greater the

difference in
concentration,
the faster the
rate of diffusion
HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS
THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS THE RATE
OF DIFFUSION
• An increase in
temperature
increases the
kinetic energy of
molecules which
make them to move
faster
HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS THE RATE
OF DIFFUSION
•When
molecules move
faster, the rate
of diffusion is
also faster
HOW SURFACE AREA
AFFECTS THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION
HOW SURFACE AREA AFFECTS THE RATE
OF DIFFUSION
• The greater the
surface area, the
more molecules or
ions can cross it at
any one moment,
and therefore the
faster diffusion can
occur
HOW SURFACE AREA AFFECTS THE RATE
OF DIFFUSION
• The surface area of
cell membranes can
be increased by
folding, as in
microvilli in the
intestine and kidneys
or the cristae inside
mitochondria
HOW SURFACE AREA AFFECTS THE RATE
OF DIFFUSION
•The larger the
surface area to
volume ratio,
the faster the
rate of diffusion
HOW NATURE OF MOLECULES
AFFECTS THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION
HOW NATURE OF MOLECULES AFFECTS
THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
• Non-polar molecules,
such as glycerol, alcohol
and steroid hormones,
diffuse much more easily
through cell membranes
than polar ones, because
they are soluble in the
non-polar phospholipid
tails
HOW NATURE OF MOLECULES AFFECTS
THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
• The respiratory gases
(oxygen and carbon
dioxide ) cross membranes
by diffusion as they are
uncharged and non-polar,
and so can cross through
the phospholipid bilayer
directly between the
phospholipid molecules
HOW NATURE OF MOLECULES AFFECTS
THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
• Polar molecules, such
as glucose and amino
acids, cannot diffuse
through the
phospholipid bilayer
nor can ions such as
sodium (Na+) or
chloride (Cl−)
HOW SIZE OF MOLECULES
AFFECTS THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION
HOW SIZE OF MOLECULES AFFECTS
THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
•Smaller
molecules
diffuse faster
than larger
ones
HOW SIZE OF MOLECULES AFFECTS THE
RATE OF DIFFUSION
• Water molecules,
despite being very
polar, can diffuse
rapidly across the
phospholipid bilayer
because they are
small enough
HOW SIZE OF MOLECULES
AFFECTS THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
• Small molecules such
as ammonia, carbon
dioxide and oxygen are
able to diffuse directly
through the
phospholipid bilayer
because they are very
small, non-polar and
uncharged
HOW SIZE OF MOLECULES
AFFECTS THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
• Large polar molecules,
such as glucose and
amino acids, cannot
diffuse through the
phospholipid bilayer.
Nor can ions such as
sodium (Na+) or
chloride (Cl−)
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Facilitated
diffusion is the
diffusion of a
substance through
transport proteins
in a cell membrane
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Facilitated diffusion is
the passive movement
of molecules down a
concentration gradient
across a membrane
through transport
proteins in the
membrane
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• The proteins provide
hydrophilic areas that
allow the molecules or
ions to pass through
the membrane which
would otherwise be
less permeable to
them
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Transport proteins
are highly specific
and each allows
only one type of
molecule or ion to
pass through it
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
INVOLVED IN FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
TRANSPORT PROTEINS INVOLVED IN
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• There are two types
of protein involved
in facilitated
diffusion, namely:
• Channel proteins
and
• Carrier proteins
CHANNEL
PROTEINS
CHANNEL PROTEINS
• They are water-filled
pores
• The interior lining of the
pore is hydrophilic
• They have a fixed shape
• They allow specific ions
and large molecules
through the membrane
CHANNEL PROTEINS
• Most channel proteins
are gated i.e. a part of
the inner surface of the
pore can move to open
or close the pore like a
gate, allowing the
control of ion
exchange
CHANNEL PROTEINS
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
POTASSIUM CHANNELS FOR
FACILITATED DIFFUSION IN AXONS

An example of protein
channels
POTASSIUM CHANNELS IN AXONS
• They are integral
proteins with a
hydrophilic inner pore
via which potassium ions
may be transported in
the axons of neurons
during an action
potential
POTASSIUM CHANNELS IN AXONS
• The channel comprises
four transmembrane
subunits, while the inner
pore contains a
selectivity filter at its
narrowest region that
restricts passage of
alternative ions
POTASSIUM CHANNELS IN AXONS
• Potassium channels
are typically voltage-
gated and cycle
between an opened
and closed
conformation
depending on the
transmembrane voltage
POTASSIUM CHANNELS IN AXONS
• It helps in moving
K+ ions out of the
axons to
cause repolarisation
POTASSIUM CHANNELS IN AXONS
•The
K+ channels
involved only
allow
the movement
of K+
CARRIER PROTEINS
CARRIER PROTEINS
• They have water-filled
pores
• The interior lining of
the pore is hydrophilic
• They do not have a
fixed shape as they
can flip between two
shapes
CARRIER PROTEINS
• They have binding
sites on either
sides of the
membrane to
which a specific
molecule to be
transported binds
CARRIER PROTEINS
• The carrier protein
changes shape upon
binding and opens at
the other side of the
membrane, releasing
the molecule at the
opposite side of the
membrane
CARRIER PROTEINS
NOTE
•Carrier proteins may move
molecules against
concentration gradients in the
presence of ATP (i.e. are used
in active transport)
OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS
• Osmosis is the passive
movement of water
molecules from a region
of lower solute
concentration to a region
of higher solute
concentration across a
partially permeable
membrane
OSMOSIS
• It is the net movement of
water molecules from a
region of higher water
potential (dilute solution) to
a region of lower water
potential (concentrated
solution), through a
partially permeable
membrane
OSMOSIS
• Osmosis is due to
the differences in
the concentration
of substances
dissolved in water
(solutes)
OSMOSIS
• The solute particles
(polar or charged
molecules) do not move
across the membrane,
but determine the
direction of movement
of water molecules
across the membrane
OSMOSIS
•Water
molecules move
to equalise the
two solutions on
either side of the
membrane
OSMOSIS
• At a higher solute
concentration there
are less free water
molecules in
solution as water is
associated with the
solute
OSMOSIS
• Osmosis can happen
in all cells because
water molecules,
despite being
hydrophilic are small
enough to pass
through the
phospholipid bilayer
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SOLUTE CONCENTRATION AND
LEVELS OF FREE WATER
MOLECULES
SOME IMPORTANT
TERMS
OSMOLARIT
Y
• Osmolarity is a
measure of solute
concentration, as
defined by the
number of moles of
a solute per litre of
solution (mol/L)
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
• Solutions may be
categorised according
to their relative
osmolarity as
• Hypertonic
• Hypotonic or
• Isotonic
HYPERTONIC SOLUTIONS
• Solutions with a
relatively higher
osmolarity (high
solute
concentration ⇒
gains water)
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
• Solutions with a
relatively lower
osmolarity (low solute
concentration ⇒ loses
water)
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
• Solutions that have
the same osmolarity
(same solute
concentration ⇒ no
net water flow)
ESTIMATING OSMOLARITY
Estimation of osmolarity in tissues by bathing
samples in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions
ESTIMATING OSMOLARITY
• The osmolarity of a
tissue may be
interpolated by
bathing the sample
in solutions with
known osmolarities
ESTIMATING OSMOLARITY
• The tissue will lose
water when placed
in hypertonic
solutions and gain
water when placed
in hypotonic
solutions
ESTIMATING OSMOLARITY
• Water loss or gain
may be determined
by weighing the
sample before and
after bathing in
solution
ESTIMATING OSMOLARITY
• Tissue osmolarity
may be inferred by
identifying the
concentration of
solution at which
there is no weight
change (i.e. isotonic)
PROJECT WORK
PROJECT WORK
•Design an experiment
to estimate the
osmolarity of pawpaw
OSMOLARITY OF TISSUES AND
ORGANS USED IN MEDICAL
PROCEDURES
Tissues or organs to be used in medical procedures
must be bathed in a solution with the same osmolarity
as the cytoplasm to prevent osmosis
OSMOLARITY OF TISSUES AND
ORGANS USED IN MEDICAL
PROCEDURES
• Tissues or organs to be
used in medical
procedures such
transplant operations
must be kept in solution
to prevent cellular
dessication that would
damage the cells
OSMOLARITY OF TISSUES AND
ORGANS USED IN MEDICAL
PROCEDURES
• It is essential that the
osmolarity (a measure of
the solute concentration)
of the saline solution is the
same as that in the
cytoplasm of the cells of
the tissue to prevent any
osmosis (gain or loss of
water)
OSMOLARITY OF TISSUES AND
ORGANS USED IN MEDICAL
PROCEDURES
•
It is of utmost
importance that all
tissues and organs to be
used in medical
procedures are kept in
solutions that maintain
the cells in a state as
close to normal structure
and function as possible
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT
SOLUTIONS ON ANIMAL
CELLS
EFFECT OF HYPERTONIC
SOLUTION ON ANIMAL CELLS
•In hypertonic
solutions, water
will leave the
cell causing it to
shrivel
(crenation)
EFFECT OF HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
ON ANIMAL CELLS
• In hypotonic
solutions, water
will enter the cell
causing it to swell
and potentially
burst (lysis)
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT
SOLUTIONS ON PLANT CELLS
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS
ON PLANT CELLS
• In plant tissues, the
effects of
uncontrolled
osmosis are
moderated by the
presence of an
inflexible cell wall
EFFECT OF HYPERTONIC
SOLUTIONS ON PLANT CELLS
• In hypertonic
solutions, the
cytoplasm will
shrink (plasmolysis)
but the cell wall will
maintain a
structured shape
EFFECT OF HYPOTONIC
SOLUTIONS ON PLANT CELLS
• In hypotonic
solutions, the
cytoplasm will
expand but be
unable to rupture
because of the
tough, rigid cell wall
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Active transport is the
movement of molecules
or ions through transport
proteins across a cell
membrane, against their
concentration gradient,
using energy from ATP
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
•The energy is
provided by
the hydrolysis
of ATP from
cell respiration
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
•Active
transport can
occur either
into or out of
the cell
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• It is achieved by
carrier proteins,
each of which is
specific for a
particular type of
molecule or ion
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• The carrier
proteins are
called protein
pumps due to
their use of
energy
HOW ACTIVE
TRANSPORT OCCURS
HOW ACTIVE TRANSPORT OCCURS
•A specific solute
binds to the
protein pump
(binding site) on
one side of the
membrane
HOW ACTIVE TRANSPORT OCCURS
•ATP binds to a
site on the
pump and is
hydrolysed to
ADP and Pi
HOW ACTIVE TRANSPORT OCCURS
• The hydrolysis of ATP
provides energy that is
used to change the
conformation of the
pump, transferring the
solute across the
membrane in the
process
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMPS FOR
ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN AXONS

An example of protein
pumps
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SODIUM-POTASSIUM
PUMPS FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN AXONS
• An integral protein
that exchanges 3
sodium ions (moves
out of cell) with two
potassium ions
(moves into cell)
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SODIUM-POTASSIUM
PUMPS FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN AXONS
• This causes the
concentration of sodium
ions needs to be
relatively higher outside
the neuron than inside a
neuron, while potassium
ions are more
concentrated inside than
outside the neuron
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SODIUM-POTASSIUM
PUMPS FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN AXONS
• This creates a
potential difference
called resting
potential across
the inner and outer
parts of the
membrane
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SODIUM-POTASSIUM
PUMPS FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN AXONS

• Resting potential
is necessary for
the transmission
of nerve impulses
(action potential)
HOW THE SODIUM-
POTASSIUM
WORKS
HOW THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
WORKS
• When the pump is
open to the inside of
the axon, three
sodium ions (Na+)
enter the pump and
attach to their
binding sites
HOW THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
WORKS
•ATP binds to a
binding site on
the pump and
becomes
hydrolysed
HOW THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
WORKS
•This causes the
protein to
change shape,
expelling Na+ to
the outside
HOW THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
WORKS
•Two potassium
ions (K+) from
outside then
enter and
attach to their
binding sites
HOW THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
WORKS
• The binding of the K+
leads to the release
of the phosphate
which causes the
pump to change
shape again so that
it is only open to the
inside of the axon
HOW THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
WORKS
•K+ is released
inside the axon
and Na+ can
now enter and
bind to the
pump again
BULK TRANSPORT
The fluidity of membranes allows materials to
be taken into cells by endocytosis or released
by exocytosis
BULK TRANSPORT
• It is the movement of
large quantities of
materials such as
proteins or
polysaccharides, parts
of cells or even whole
cells across the
membrane into cells or
out of cells
BULK TRANSPORT
•Bulk transport is
a form of active
transport, so it
requires energy
from respiration
BULK TRANSPORT
• The fluidity of the
membrane allows for the
spontaneous breaking
and reforming of the
bilayer, allowing larger
materials to enter or
leave the cell without
having to cross the
membrane
BULK TRANSPORT
• There are two
types of bulk
transport of
substances:
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
ENDOCYTOSIS
ENDOCYTOSI
S
• Endocytosis is the bulk
movement of liquids or
solids into a cell, by
the infolding of the cell
surface membrane to
form vesicles
containing the
substance
TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
• There are two types
of endocytosis,
namely:
• Phagocytosis
and
• Pinocytosis
PHAGOCYTOSIS OR CELL EATING

•It is the
bulk uptake
of solid
material
PHAGOCYTOSIS OR CELL EATING
• Cells specialising in
this are called
phagocytes
• The process is called
phagocytosis
• The vacuoles involved
are called phagocytic
vacuoles
PINOCYTOSIS OR CELL DRINKING

•It is the
bulk
uptake of
liquid
PINOCYTOSIS OR CELL DRINKING
• The vacuoles
(vesicles) formed
are often extremely
small, in which case
the process is
called
micropinocytosis
EXOCYTOSIS
EXOCYTOSIS
• Exocytosis is the bulk
movement of liquids
or solids out of a cell,
by the fusion of
vesicles containing
the substance with
the cell surface
membrane
TYPES OF EXOCYTOSIS
•There are two
types of
exocytosis:
• Excretion
• Secretion
EXCRETION
• It is the bulk
movement of
liquids or solid
materials that are
NOT useful
(wastes) out of a
cell
EXCRETION
• Following
phagocytosis, any
undigested remains
of the microbe that
are not useful to the
cell are excreted
outside the cell
SECRETION
• It is the bulk
movement of
liquids or solid
materials that are
useful out of a
cell
SECRETION
• Following processing by
the Golgi apparatus,
proteins and hormones
are packaged in
vesicles and fuse with
the plasma membrane
for secretion outside the
cell
SUMMARY OF THE PROCESS OF
ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BASIC MECHANISMS
OF MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
ROLE OF VESICLES
ROLE OF
VESICLES
• Vesicles play a very
important role in
both exocytosis and
endocytosis as they
allow the movement
of materials within
the cell
AN EXAMPLE OF THE
ROLE OF VESICLES
AN EXAMPLE OF THE ROLE OF
VESICLES
• Enzymes are made
by the ribosomes on
the ER
• The enzymes are
released in the sacs
of the ER
AN EXAMPLE OF THE ROLE OF
VESICLES
• The enzymes are
modified and
packaged in a
vesicle
• The vesicle
pinches off from the
ER
AN EXAMPLE OF THE ROLE OF
VESICLES
• The vesicles move
to the Golgi
apparatus and fuse
with its membrane
• The enzymes are
further modified and
package in a vesicle
AN EXAMPLE OF THE ROLE OF
VESICLES
• The vesicle pinches
off from the Golgi
apparatus, moves to
and fuses with the
plasma membrane,
releasing the
enzymes out of the
cell
BIBLIOGRAPHY / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
END OF UNIT