RADIATION SAFETY PROCEDURES IN

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
 Contents
 Introduction

 Basic principle and applications of

radiographic techniques
 Industrial radiographic equipment

 Control of external radiation exposures

 Safe working procedures

 Summary
 Introduction
 Radiography technique - ensuring the integrity of
vessels, pipes, welded joints and metal castings.

 Radiography produces high energy/penetrative

radiations - person accidentally exposed to these
radiations would result in radiation injury.

 To avoid unnecessary radiation exposure certain

procedures should be introduced, through:
 proper radiation safety programme
 Training
 maintenance of sources and devices.
 Basic Principle and Applications of
Radiographic Techniques

 Three basic items needed:

radiation source, object, and Radiation
film. Source

 Basic principle: x-rays or

gamma rays interact with a test
object, some of the radiation is
absorbed and another portion
passes through un-deviated to
form an image. Specimen

 Applications: to detect defects

in welding, casting and building Film
structure.
Industrial Radiographic Equipment

 X-Ray radiographic equipment.

 X-ray tube;

 Transformers or high voltage source to produce the

required voltage; and

 A set of control panel.

 Gamma radiography sources and containers.

Industrial Radiographic Equipment
X-ray radiographic equipment: X-ray tubes

 The x-ray tube is a vacuum tube in which electrons are

accelerated to a high velocity by means of electrostatic
field and then suddenly stopped by collision with a
target.

 Result of this collision, x-rays are emitted.

 To prevent x-rays from becoming a hazard and create

scattered radiation, the x-ray tube is shielded with lead
(the window remains unshielded).
Industrial Radiographic Equipment
X-ray radiographic equipment: X-ray tubes (cont.):

The basic components of a x-ray tube are:

a sealed glass tube envelope,
a cathode, and
an anode
Filament (Cathode) Target (Anode)

Glass tube envelope

X-ray tube window
Industrial Radiographic Equipment

X-ray radiographic equipment: X-ray tubes (cont.):

A sealed glass tube envelope:

 Made of glass or metal-ceramic having high melting

point to withstand the intense heat generated at the
anode.

 High vacuum environment:

 To prevent oxidation of the electrode materials;
 To permit ready passage of the electron beam without
ionisation of gas within the tube; and
 To provide electrical insulation between the electrodes.
Industrial Radiographic Equipment
X-ray radiographic equipment: generation of x-rays (cont.):
High positive charge
Focusing cup

Electrons
Cathode Anode
Electron bombardment at target material

Electrons Hot
body
cloud

Electrons cloud around a heated filament

Industrial Radiographic Equipment

X-ray radiographic equipment: generation of x-rays

(cont.):

Apply kV, the electrons are quickly accelerated towards

the anode.

Electrons will strike a target material and is brought

rapidly to halt.

More than 97% electrons’ kinetic energy converted to

heat; and less than 3% to x-ray photons.
Industrial Radiographic Equipment

X-ray radiographic equipment: types of X-ray equipment (cont.):

Directional and panoramic conventional X-ray units.

 Directional x-ray tube assemblies are fitted with suitable
window/collimators

 Without the collimator the tube is called panoramic x-ray tube.

Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Gamma radiography sources and containers:

 Activity of the source after time t can be calculated by using these

formulas:
a). At = Ao.e-0.693t/T1/2
Where At = activity after time t; Ao = original activity; T1/2 = half
life
or
b). 2n = Ao/An
Where Ao = original activity; An = activity after n half life; n =
the numbers of half-life
Industrial Radiographic Equipment

Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):

 Radionuclides (sealed source) commonly used in industrial

radiography:

Isotope Half-life Typical Activity Gamma constant

(Gyh-1GBq-1 at 1 m
Ir-192 74 days 3.7 TBq 130

Co-60 5.3 years 1.8 - 3.7 TBq 351

Yb-169 32 days 185 GBq 34

Se-75 120 days 1.48 TBq 56

Industrial Radiographic Equipment

Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):

Exposure Device :

Gamma containers ( PROJECTORS ) classification

according to mobility:
Class P (portable, less 30 kg, carried by hand)
Class M (Mobile, example by trolley) 50 Kg
Class F (Fixed, installed in an enclosure)

Class P, M and F Projectors.

Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):
Exposure container:
 Dose rate limits for the various classes of exposure containers

  Maximum dose equivalent rate Sv/h

Class On external At 50mm from At 1m from

surface of external surface of external surface
container container of container
P 2000 500 20

M 2000 1000 50

F 2000 1000 100

Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Gamma radiography sources and projectors (cont.):
Exposure device :

Class M – mobile
Typical Co-60

Class P – Portable
Typical Ir-192
Industrial Radiographic Equipment

Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):

 Source assemblies

source assembly

source pigtail connector

Industrial Radiographic Equipment

Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):

 Remote controls

Crank Type

Pistol Type
Industrial Radiographic Equipment

Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):

 Guide and extension tubes

Industrial Radiographic Equipment

Gamma radiography sources and containers (cont.):

 Collimators - made from:

 Tungsten

 Depleted uranium

 Lead
Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Pipe crawler equipment:

 Application - used to radiograph welds of pipelines.

 The machines/mobile carriage carry either an x-ray tube

assembly or a gamma source.

 The crawler is powered by batteries on the carriage, an

internal combustion engine, or trailing cables from a generator.

 The crawler is activated and controlled by the radiographer

from outside the pipe using a control source, Cs-137 sealed
source.
Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Radiation safety equipment:

Personal monitoring instruments:

 They dose monitoring instruments, are small devices,

designed to be worn by an individual radiographer to measure
the exposure received by them,

 Examples of these instruments are:

 pocket dosimeter,
 film badge, and
 thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)
Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Radiation safety equipment (cont.):

Monitoring instruments / dose rate meters:

 Dose rate monitoring/measuring instruments or survey meter are those

that measure the time rate, at which exposure is received.

 A meter should be available for use with each source of ionizing

radiation.

 All meters should have a battery test position and the battery state
should always be checked prior to operation.

 Dose rate meters are expensive and delicate instruments, and should be
treated with care and respect at all time.

 Only calibrated instrument shall be used.

Industrial Radiographic Equipment
Radiation safety equipment (cont.):

Monitoring instruments / dose rate meters:

 The survey meter should be used to achieve the following

objectives;

 To check initial level at the safety barriers.

 To monitor on a routine basis the dose rate at the safety barriers,

particularly when the radiographic location varies.

 To check that a source is fully shielded after use or that a source is

fully retracted.

 To help locate a lost source.

 Control of External Radiation
Exposure

The three principle methods used to control

radiation exposure are:

Time

Distance

Shielding
 Control of External Radiation
Exposure
Time:

 The exposure received by an individual working in an area is

directly proportional to the amount of time that the individual
spends in the area.

 The individual’s exposure will be equal to the product of the

radiation intensity and the amount of time spent in that
radiation intensity.

 This can be mathematically expressed as:

Exposure (E) = Intensity (Dose Rate, I) x Time (t)

 Control of External Radiation
Exposure
Distance:

 Dose rate is inversely proportional to the square of the distance

from the source.

 This is known as the inverse square law. Mathematically it can be

expressed as:

(I1/I2) = (d2/d1)2

 The above formula can also be used if the specific gamma ray
constant given. The gamma ray constant represents the radiation
dose rate from one GBq source at a unit distance, usually one
meter.
 Control of External Radiation
Exposure
Shielding:

 The effectiveness of shielding materials depends on

the atomic number, the density of the material and
the thickness of the material.

 The shielding efficiency is also dependent on the

energy of the gamma rays / x-rays.

 Higher energies are less likely to interact with

electrons. Thus, they are more penetrating.
 Control of External Radiation
Exposure
Shielding (cont.):
Io x,  Ix
 Formulas for shielding calculation:

 Ix = Io exp (-x)
Where Ix = dose rate after passing thickness x; Io = dose rate before
shielding;  = linear attenuation coefficient; x = thickness

 Intensity (Ix) = Intensity (Io) x Transmission factor ()

 Half-value layer (HVL), 2n = (Io/ Ix)

Where n = the number of HVL

 Tenth-value layer (TVL), 10n = (Io/ Ix)

Where n = the number of TVL
 Control of External Radiation
Exposure
Shielding (cont.):
 HVL and TVL values for radiographic radioisotopes and common shielding materials

Shielding Material and Thickness (cm) Source

Ir-192 Co-60
Concrete TVL 14.74 22.86
HVL 4.82 6.85
Steel TVL 2.90 7.36
HVL 0.87 2.20
Lead TVL 1.62 4.11
HVL 0.48 1.24
Uranium TVL 0.93 2.29
HVL 0.28 0.69
 Safe Working Procedures
Preparation prior to commencement of work (cont.):

 Radiation survey meter:

The response of the instrument should be appropriate to

the type of radiation.

Only calibrated instruments shall be used. (Refer to the

instrument's certificate of calibration).

Ensure that the instrument's battery is in good working

condition.
 Safe Working Procedures
Preparation prior to commencement of work (cont.):

 Warning signals:

 It used to warn people around the area for the presence of

radiation.

 It should be in the form of light or audible signals or both.

 The light or audible signal shall be distinguishable for the following

situations:
 When a sealed source is about to be exposed or when an X-ray
machine is about to be energised.
 When a sealed source is exposed or an X-ray machine is energized.
 Safe Working Procedures
Preparation prior to commencement of work (cont.):

 Warning and radiation signs :

Warning and radiation (Tri-foil) signs of adequate size must

be made available.

These signs are used to identify and define restricted

areas.

It is suggested that the name, address and telephone

number of the person responsible for the site to be
included on each warning sign.
 Safe Working Procedures
Radiographic work procedure in open sites:
(prior to work)

 Movement of radiation sources outside the premise shall comply with

the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations .

 On arrival at site, the radiographer must obtain permit-to-work.

 Inform the area supervisor on the following items:

 Type and strength of radiographic source.
 Model and serial number of radiographic equipment.
 Name of radiographer.
 Type of radiation safety equipment to be used.
 Period of works.
 A sketch of the site plan indicating the location of the works and intended
safety boundary.
 Safe Working Procedures
Radiographic work procedure in open sites (cont.):
(prior to work)

 After the location of the radiographic work has been identified, the
following requirements shall be satisfied:

 Boundaries for controlled area shall be clearly defined with barriers of

rope or other means.

 Warning lights shall be displayed to indicate that radiographic exposure

is underway.

 Warning and radiation signs shall be prominently displayed.

 The area shall be kept under surveillance at all times during an

exposure.
 Safe Working Procedures
Radiographic work procedure in open sites (cont.):
(during work)

 The radiographer must at frequent intervals measures the dose rate

to ensures that the rope is correctly placed.

 If the dose rate exceeds the permissible limit, position of the barrier
must be adjusted.

 The radiographer must take every effort to minimise the radiation risk.
This can be achieved by observing the following parameters:

 Time (as short as possible)

 Distance (as far as possible)
 Shielding (use collimator or shielding materials whenever possible)
Safe Working Procedures

Effective communication between

radiographers in a crew is essential
 Safe Working Procedures
Radiographic work procedure in open sites (cont.):
(after work completed)

 Source returned to Projector

 Use survey meter to confirm safe position of source

 Lock the Projector

 Projector returned to store/vehicle

 Barriers and signs dismantled

 Inform area supervisor

 Safe Working Procedures
Establishment of radiographic boundary:

 Initial calculations – safe working distance using inverse

square law.

 Make preliminary boundary and place radiation warning signs

at the boundary.

 Energize the x-ray machine or expose the radioactive source.

 Check the dose rate at the boundary using a survey-meter and

adjust the boundary if necessary.
Safe Working Procedures

Specimen Rope

Survey
Gamma Meter
Projector

Radiation Sign
Winding cable
 Safe Working Procedures
Storage of radiographic equipment on sites:

 Storage for gamma sources:

 Specially constructed storage pit is needed.

 Safety and security of this pit shall be the responsibility of authorize person
appointed by the NDT company.

 Sufficient radiation warning notices shall be displayed clearly.

 Names, telephone numbers of the responsible persons should be included

together with the company’s name, address and telephone number.

 Storage of gamma source can be classified into two types, namely; long
term and temporary storages.
 Safe Working Procedures
Storage of radiographic equipment on sites (cont.):

 Storage for gamma sources - long term:

 Source may be stored in its own containers that are used

during local transport or in storage pit

 Store should be provided with sufficient shielding to ensure

adequate protection for all persons.

 Dose rate outside the store < 0.02mSv/hr at 1 meter from the
source or 0.2mSv/hr at 5cm from the outer surface of the
protective container or any additional shielding used around it.
Safe Working Procedures
Fence

Storage pit

Exposure
device

The radioisotope storage pit (on site)

 Safe Working Procedures
Transportation of gamma sources:

Transport within company premises:

 Gamma sources should be carried in its container (exposure device).

 The appropriate label and warning signs should be placed on the

container.

 Information such as the type, nature, activity and radiation level of the
sources being transported should also be indicated on the container.

 Transport of gamma sources should be carried out only by the

designated radiation workers.
 Safe Working Procedures
Transportation of gamma sources (cont.):

Transport outside company premises:

 It should comply to with Radiation Protection (Transport) Procedure

NDTRS001 & SAEP 1141

 Ensure that the vehicle to be used for transporting the source is in good
working condition.

 The radiation levels in the driver’s compartment shall not exceed 0.02
mSv/hr. The driver may need to be given a personal dosimeter such as
film badge or pocket dosimeter.

 The vehicle may also be used as a storage facility en-route, radiation

levels external to the vehicle should also satisfy the requirements for an
unrestricted area.
 Safe Working Procedures
Transportation of gamma sources (cont.):

Transport outside company premises:

 All emergency equipment - radiation signs, rope, a

fire extinguisher and a radiation survey meter should
be made available in the vehicle.

 In case of an accident, make an immediate radiation

survey. If any abnormal radiation levels exist,
establish and secure the restricted area, and notify
the responsible officer.
 Safe Working Procedures
Transportation of gamma sources (cont.):

Transport outside company premises:

 If the vehicle is carrying a package bearing a radioactive

Yellow II and III labels, it must be labelled with a radioactive
placard at the left, right and the rear sides.

 No other persons (beside the driver and/or his assistant) is/are

allowed travelling in the same vehicle transporting/carrying the
radiation source.

 Any loss of gamma sources during transport should be

reported immediately to the RPO.
Any Questions ?
 Thank You
for your attention