Forensic Pathology

Ms. Faulconer and Dr. Walker

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Terminology
• Autopsy – The postmortem evaluation of a
human body
– Postmortem – “after death”
– “Autos” – self, “Optos” – seen (Greek)
• Necropsy – The postmortem evaluation of an
animal
– “nekros”- corpse (Greek)
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Pathology
• Field of medicine related to diagnosis of disease
– Forensic pathology - Focuses on determining the cause
of death by examining a corpse

• Requires an M. D. degree plus residency in

pathology (total time after high school > 12 years)
• Most pathologists do not see patients (at least not
live ones)
 What makes a good pathologist?
• A talent for and interest in science. This should include not
only biology, but physics, chemistry, and the social sciences
(anthropology and psychology). For the bread-and-butter
technical part of your work, you should especially have a good
grasp of spatial relationships. (geometry, anyone?)
• Good communication skills. You will not only be interacting
with law officers, but you'll be trying to convince judges and
juries that your findings are valid.
• Strong stomach. You'll be routinely dealing with
dismembered and/or rotting bodies. From a pure visceral
standpoint there is no job more disgusting than forensic
pathology.
 What makes a good pathologist?
• Thick skin. You will be periodically raked over the coals by the
local media, who apparently cannot to resist the urge to
armchair-quarterback your work. You will also make many
enemies among the citizenry. For instance, when you
determine that Daddy killed himself, and he wasn't poisoned
by that blond bimbo who was only interested in his money,
you are going to have some very angry children buzzing
around you.
• The mind of a detective. You will have to constantly be on
guard against being fooled by malefactors smarter and more
focused than you. You will have to have some insight into the
heart and mind of a criminal.
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Autopsy
• Internal and External Examination of the body after
death
– Document disease/injuries

– Determine time since death (PMI)

– Determine cause/manner of death

• Cause: specific reason person died (e.g. gunshot
wound to the head)
• Manner: Categories (homicide, accident, suicide,
natural, undetermined)
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Autopsy
• Internal and External Examination of the body
after death

– Determine mechanism of death

• Physiological reason for death (shock,
blood loss, asphyxia)
– Establish identity
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Steps
• 1st - External Examination
– height/weight
– Photography
– UV exam (fluids)
• 2nd - Toxicology
– Nail scrapings
– Fluid samples
– Analysis (GC/MS)
• 3rd - Internal Examination
– Head (circular saw)
– Chest (Y incision)
– Abdomen
* Inspect organs and weigh
 Steps of an Autopsy
• First step: Examination of the exterior of the
body
– Records are made of height, weight, and any
visible characteristics
– Photographs are taken from every possible angle
and the body is examined by UV light (find UV
active fluids)
 Steps of an Autopsy
• Second step
– Blood, hair, urine, and oral swab samples are
taken
– Nail scrapings are collected and the body is X-
rayed
– Samples may be analyzed by GC-MS (toxicology
screening)
 Steps of an Autopsy
• Third Step
– The pathologist makes a Y incision with a scapel;
from each shoulder to midchest, then from
midchest to pelvis.
– An incision is made across the skull from ear to
ear. The skin is pulled back and the bone is cut
with a vibrating saw.
 Steps of an Autopsy
• Third Step
– The brain and major organs (heart, liver, kidneys, spleen)
are removed, weighed, tissue samples taken and analyzed.

– Stomach contents may be analyzed if present.

– The neck and windpipe are examined for abnormalities.
– After the examination, the organs are put back in the body
and the body is sewn back together (for burial).
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Macroscopic Analysis
• CO poisoning
– Cherry red coloring

• Defense Wounds
– Wounds on palms from
holding up hands when
attacked
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Macroscopic Analysis
• Organs
– Polycystic kidneys (top right)
– Tuberculosis (lungs) (low right)
– Stroke aka infarction (below)
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Microscopic Analysis
• Fat Embolism
– Long bone trauma
– Burns
– Severe soft tissue trauma
• Shaken Baby Synd.
– Torn axons
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PMI
• Post-Mortem Interval
– The time elapsed since death
– Can be determine scientifically & non-scientifically
• Traditional Methods:
– Algor Mortis
– Livor Mortis
– Rigor Mortis
• Nontraditional methods:
– Entomology
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Algor Mortis
• Cooling of the body

– Body temperature = 37 Celsius (98.6 Farenheit)

– Basic Formula for Time of Death:
• Body cools one degree/hour after death
• 37 – Body Temperature Postmortem = Hours after
death
• Temperature measured by liver or rectum
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Factors Affecting Algor Mortis

• Indoors/Outdoors
• Clothing or lack thereof
– Multiple layers slow cooling
– If naked, cooling is faster
• If outdoors
– Weather conditions
• Cold, wind, moisture accelerate body cooling
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Livor Mortis
• Discoloration due to blood settling
• Lividity= degree of discoloration
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Livor Mortis
• Once the heart stops pumping blood will pool in the area
of the body closest to the ground.

• Begins to appear 6-10 hours after death and is fixed after

24 hours

• May not be fixed if the body is moved within the first 12

hours after death

• A forensic pathologist can use this information to

determine whether the body has been moved and to get
some idea of TOD.
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Rigor Mortis
• Stiffening of the muscles of the body.

– Occurs due to buildup of lactic acid in the muscles

postmortem, inability of muscles to pump calcium
out of the cell

– Rigor starts in the small muscles of the face and

progresses to the neck , upper extremities, trunk
and lower extremities
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Rigor Mortis
• Rigor Mortis is usually complete after 36
hours and muscles permanently relax

• Rigor mortis is unreliable by itself

• Affected by
– Drug use
– Exertion prior to death
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Petechial Hemmhoraging
• Pinpoint red mark that is a sign of manual
strangulation, hanging, or smothering
• Occurs when blood leaks from capillaries in
eyes
– Occurs in eyes and on eyelids
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Forensic Entomology
• Typically requires a Ph. D. in Entomology,
followed by additional training in forensic
applications.
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Circle Of Life…
• Bacteria colonize corpses first

– Tolerant of acidic conditions postmortem

– Already present in body before death

– Activity neutralizes tissues

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Circle Of Life
• Flies show up next
– Bacterial activity neutralizes and moistens flesh,
which can then be eaten by flies
– Flies lay eggs, life cycles continue until moist flesh
is consumed
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Circle of Life
• Beetles/Mites
– Some species eat fly larvae, so they’ll show up
where the flies are
– Can consume drier flesh
– Hide beetles – can consume keratin, present in
hair and nails
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Circle Of Life
• Wasps

– Lay eggs inside and eat fly pupae

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What can bugs tell us?
• Urban species in a rural environment or vice versa
can indicate that the body has been moved from
one setting to another.

• Skuttle flies – reproduce underground

• Blow flies – reproduce above ground
– The presence of Skuttle fly larva on a body found on the
surface may indicate a previous burial. Likewise blowfly
larvae on a buried body may indicate burial after some
time on the surface.
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What can bugs tell us?
• Lack of insect activity can indicate storage at
freezing temperatures or enclosure in an air
tight container

• Sealing a body in a plastic garbage bag, a

vehicle, a rug and/or burning it does not deter
colonization
 Forensic Anthropology

http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00206/images/5_60_skull.JPG
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Anthropology
• The study of humans and it consists of several
sub-fields: 
– Physical anthropology — the study of the primate
order, past and present, such as primate biology,
skeletal biology, and human adaptation
– Cultural and linguistic anthropology — the study of
the aspects of human society and language, past and
present
– Archaeology — the study of past cultures via
material remains and artifacts
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Forensic Anthropology
• Draws predominantly from the field of physical
anthropology
– Osteology – the study of bones
• Most are Ph. D’s who work primarily as
professors
• “In those cases in which soft tissue has been
degraded by time, temperature, environment or
other external forces, the only tissue remaining
more or less intact is bone.” 

http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/criminal_mind/forensics/anthropology/1.html
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Forensic Anthropologist
• Called into a crime scene when:
– Remains are found during archeological
excavation

– Remains are badly burned or decomposed

– Skeletonized remains are found

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Identifying Factors
• Provide law enforcement with a biological profile of
the deceased
– Age
– Sex
– Ancestry
– Stature (Height, body type)
– Previous trauma (injuries)
– Potential Cause of Death
• This helps narrow down the possible identity of the
decedent.
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Age Determination
• Older adults can have the following:
– Calcium and other mineral deposits
– Changes in the pelvis or evidence of bone diseases
like arthritis
• Bones become less dense with age
– Other clues come from the developmental stages
in the teeth and from worn areas in enamel.
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Age Determination
• Looking at the teeth can reveal the age if the
remains belong to a child or adolescent.
• Human teeth break through in a predictable
pattern and offer a fairly reliable estimate
between five months and 21 years.
– Baby teeth (20) vs. permanent teeth (32)
– Presence or absence of wisdom teeth (usually >
15 y.o.)
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Age Determination
• The young
– The epiphyseal union -- areas of the femur that
gradually fuse as a person ages -- can help
estimate young ages if the teeth are missing.
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Physical Characteristics
• Height Determination
– Rule of thumb: Height = 5 x Humerus length
– Formulas for height based on other major bones
as well (spine, tibia, and femur).
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Ethnicity
• Ethnicity can be determined from variations in
the facial structure, especially the nose and
eye sockets. 
– In people of African and Asian descent, the nose
ridge is broader than in Caucasians.

http://www.internetlooks.com/nasalbonecharacteristicstypical.jpg
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Physical Characteristics
• Gender Determination: Pelvis
– Female pelvic girdle is wider than a man’s.

Female pelvis Male pelvis

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What can they figure out?
• In skeletal trauma analysis, some forensic
anthropologists can accurately determine:

– Degree of force (sharp, blunt, ballistic)

• Cuts from a knife
• Bullet holes
• Fracture from blunt object
– Evidence of poisoning
– When the blow occurred (before, near, or after T.O.D.)
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Determining Postmortem Interval

• Postmortem Interval – Determining time since death

• As bodies decompose, they leak five fatty acids -- the

breakdown products of muscle and fat -- into the
ground.

• Concentration and identity of acids

– Can reveal time since death
– Can reveal how long the body has been in a location
 Determining Postmortem Interval
• The first technique traces the ratio of the five fatty
acids in comparison to each other -- a method that
works as long as there is soft tissue (skin and organs)
on the body.
• If not, another technique tracks the ratios of seven
inorganic compounds, such as sodium and calcium,
which leach into the soil from the bones.
• If a body is too badly decomposed for those
techniques, scientists rely mostly on bones.
 Determining Postmortem Interval
• If the surrounding soil does not contain the
chemicals released as a body decays, the body
was probably placed there recently.

• Soil samples containing those chemicals and

the bugs that help experts guess how long it
has been since the person died. This number
can be the key to whether an alibi flies or
flops in a murder trial.
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Determining Postmortem Interval

• Temperature, humidity levels, and grave
depth can all change how fast a body
decomposes.

• The fastest transformation from corpse to

skeleton happened in just 12 days.
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Determining Postmortem Interval

• Total skeletonization occurs in:
– Buried two feet: six months
– Buried six feet: two years

• A body will skeletonize faster if it is buried in

acidic ground.
– Soil in pine forests tend to be far more acidic
than soil in deciduous forests.
 Stages of Decomposition

• Living Organism
– No outward decomposition
– Contains microorganisms that will rapidly multiply
after death
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Stages of Decomposition

Stage 1 – Initial Decay - 0 to 3 days postmortem

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Stages of Decomposition
• Stage 2 – Putrefaction – 4 to 10 day postmortem

• The pig has become bloated from the build up of gases

within the body.
• Gas buildup creates internal pressure, inflating the body
and forcing fluids from the body.
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Stages of Decomposition
• Stage 3 - Black putrefaction – 10 to 20 days
postmortem

• The pig's body has collapsed with black exposed

surfaces and creamy flesh
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Stages of Decomposition
• Stage 4 – Butyric Fermentation – 20 to 50
days postmortem
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Stages of Decomposition
• Stage 5 – Dry Decay – 50 to 365 days
postmortem
 Case Study
• A man kills his wife. His girlfriend watches as he
places the body in a 55-gallon drum, douses it with
kerosene and lights a match.

• He dumps the scorched contents onto the edge of an

empty field. Three years later, the couple splits. The
woman goes to the police and describes the murder.
Investigators find no trace of a crime at the scene.
 Case Study
• They test the soil and find nothing. But one of
the investigators has an idea: He saws off a
limb from a tree on the edge of the field and
traces the tree's annual growth rings back
three years.
• In the lab, he is able to isolate kerosene within
that ring.
• The suspect is convicted although a body is
never found.
 Sources
• http://australianmuseum.net.au/Death-The-
Last-Taboo

• http://www.crimeandclues.com/index.php/
forensic-science-a-csi/death-investigation/24-
entomology/43-the-role-of-entomology-in-
forensic-investigations