Meat And Poultry

Processing
All the Things you need to know about meat and poultry
processing.
Meat Processing
Meat is the common term used to describe the edible portion of
animal tissues and any processed or manufactured products prepared
from these tissues. Meats are often classified by the type of animal
from which they are taken. Red meat refers to the meat taken from
mammals, white meat refers to the meat taken from fowl, seafood
refers to the meat taken from fish and shellfish, and game refers to
meat taken from animals that are not commonly domesticated. In
addition, most commonly consumed meats are specifically identified
by the live animal from which they come. Beef refers to the meat from
cattle, veal from calves, pork from hogs, lamb from young sheep, and
mutton from sheep older than two years. It is with these latter types of
red meat that this section is concerned.
Conversion of muscle to meat
There are three distinct types of muscle in animals: smooth,
cardiac, and skeletal. Smooth muscles, found in the organ
systems including the digestive and reproductive tracts, are
often used as casings for sausages. Cardiac muscles are located
in the heart and are also often consumed as meat products.
However, most meat and meat products are derived from
skeletal muscles, which are usually attached to bones and, in the
living animal, facilitate movement and support the weight of the
body. Skeletal muscles are the focus of the following discussion.
Skeletal muscle structure
Skeletal muscles are divided from one another by a covering of
connective tissue called the epimysium. Individual muscles are divided
into separate sections (called muscle bundles) by another connective
tissue sheath known as the perimysium. Clusters of fat cells, small blood
vessels (capillaries), and nerve branches are found in the region between
muscle bundles. Muscle bundles are further divided into smaller
cylindrical muscle fibres (cells) of varying lengths that are individually
wrapped with a thin connective tissue sheath called the endomysium.
Each of the connective tissue sheaths found throughout skeletal muscle is
composed of collagen, a structural protein that provides strength and
support to the muscles. The plasma membrane of a muscle cell, called
the sarcolemma, separates the sarcoplasm (muscle cell cytoplasm) from
the extracellular surroundings. Within the sarcoplasm of each individual
muscle fibre are approximately 1,000 to 2,000 myofibrils. Composed of
the contractile proteins actin and myosin, the myofibrils represent the
smallest units of contraction in living muscle.
Skeletal muscle contraction
The contraction of skeletal muscles is an energy-requiring process. In
order to perform the mechanical work of contraction, actin and myosin
utilize the chemical energy of the molecule adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP is synthesized in muscle cells from the storage polysaccharide
glycogen, a complex carbohydrate composed of hundreds of covalently
linked molecules of glucose (a monosaccharide or simple carbohydrate).
In a working muscle, glucose is released from the glycogen reserves and
enters a metabolic pathway called glycolysis, a process in which glucose is
broken down and the energy contained in its chemical bonds is
harnessed for the synthesis of ATP. The net production of ATP depends on
the level of oxygen reaching the muscle. In the absence of oxygen
(anaerobic conditions), the products of glycolysis are converted to lactic
acid, and relatively little ATP is produced. In the presence of oxygen
(aerobic conditions), the products of glycolysis enter a second pathway,
the citric acid cycle, and a large amount of ATP is synthesized by a process
called oxidative phosphorylation.
Skeletal muscle contraction
In addition to carbohydrates, fats supply a significant amount of energy for working
muscles. Fats are stored in the body as triglycerides (also called triacylglycerols). A
triglyceride is composed of three fatty acid molecules (nonpolar hydrocarbon chains with
a polar carboxyl group at one end) bound to a single glycerol molecule. If the fat deposits
are required for energy production, fatty acids are released from the triglyceride
molecules in a process called fatty acid mobilization. The fatty acids are broken down
into smaller molecules that can enter the citric acid cycle for the synthesis of ATP by
oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, the utilization of fats for energy requires the
presence of oxygen. An important protein of muscle cells is the oxygen-binding protein
myoglobin. Myoglobin takes up oxygen from the blood (transported by the related
oxygen-binding protein hemoglobin) and stores it in the muscle cells for oxidative
metabolism. The structure of myoglobin includes a nonprotein group called the heme
ring. The heme ring consists of a porphyrin molecule bound to an iron (Fe) atom. The
iron atom is responsible for the binding of oxygen to myoglobin and has two possible
oxidation states: the reduced, ferrous form (Fe2+) and the oxidized, ferric form (Fe3+). In
the Fe2+ state iron is able to bind oxygen (and other molecules). However, oxidation of
the iron atom to the Fe3+ state prevents oxygen binding.
Postmortem muscle
Once the life of an animal ends, the life-sustaining processes slowly
cease, causing significant changes in the postmortem (after death)
muscle. These changes represent the conversion of muscle to meat.

pH changes
Normally, after death, muscle becomes more acidic (pH decreases).
When an animal is bled after slaughter (a process known as
exsanguination), oxygen is no longer available to the muscle cells, and
anaerobic glycolysis becomes the only means of energy production
available. As a result, glycogen stores are completely converted to
lactic acid, which then begins to build up, causing the pH to drop.
Typically, the pH declines from a physiological pH of approximately 7.2
in living muscle to a postmortem pH of approximately 5.5 in meat
(called the ultimate pH).
Processing of poultry
Raw poultry products
Whole or individual parts of birds may be packaged raw for direct sale. Poultry
packaged in the United States must include instructions about safe handling,
including the need to wash all equipment that has come in contact with raw
poultry and the need to wash one’s hands before preparing other foods. Most
raw turkey is sold frozen, while most chicken is sold fresh.

Fresh poultry
The birds are generally cut into a number of pieces, which are placed on plastic
foam trays and covered with a plastic film. A “diaper” (absorbent paper with a
plastic backing) is often used to catch any liquid that may be released from the
meat. Fresh poultry should be used within 14 to 21 days after slaughter and
generally should not be kept in the home refrigerator for more than three
days. In the United States, poultry that has been frozen to a temperature of −5
to −4 °C (22 to 24 °F) and then allowed to thaw can legally be sold as “fresh.”
Processing of poultry
Processed poultry products
Poultry may be further processed into other products. The number of
processed poultry products has increased dramatically since the 1970s
because of the low cost of poultry and its versatile, bland flavor.

Battering and breading

Some poultry products are battered (e.g., with beer batter) or battered and
breaded (e.g., with cracker meal, bread crumbs, or cornmeal) for frying. The
meat may be either cooked or raw prior to coating. For battered and breaded
poultry, the pieces are passed through a flour-based batter containing
leavening and then through the breading ingredients. Many types of baked
breadings have been developed to meet different tastes (e.g., Cajun or
Japanese). To hold the breading to the poultry, the product is deep-fried for a
short time. If the poultry is fully cooked in this process, the consumer will only
have to heat the product before eating it. Chicken nuggets are a battered and
breaded product that is marinated before coating.
Processing of poultry
Tumbling and massaging
In the manufacturing of many poultry products, the meat is mixed with a variety of nonmeat
ingredients, including flavorings, spices, and salt. Tumbling and massaging are gentle methods that
produce a uniform meat mixture. A tumbler is a slowly rotating drum that works the meat into a
smooth mixture. A massager is a large mixing chamber that contains a number of internal paddles.
Cured turkey products (i.e., treated with sodium nitrite), such as turkey ham and turkey pastrami, are
often tumbled or massaged during processing.

Smoking
Poultry may be smoked. Prior to smoking, the birds must be brined (soaked in a salt solution containing
certain flavorings) and then allowed to dry. Smoking can be done using real wood shavings or a smoke
flavoring. In the last case this must be labeled in the United States as “natural smoke flavor added.”

Deboning and grinding

Further processed poultry products leave the backs, necks, and bones available for their own
processing. These materials are run through a machine called a mechanical deboner or a meat-bone
separator. In general, the crushed meat and bones are continuously pressed against a screen and the
edible, soft materials pushed through the screen. The resulting minced product is similar in texture to
ground beef and has been used for many poultry products such as frankfurters (hot dogs) and bologna.
Poultry frankfurters and bologna are made using a process similar to that for beef and pork. The meat is
combined with water or ice, salt, and seasonings and chopped to emulsify the materials. The mixture is
stuffed into plastic casings and cooked in a smokehouse. The meat is then quickly chilled, peeled, and
vacuum-packaged. Bologna is stuffed into a larger casing and is not necessarily peeled.