CHAPTER 2

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Two types of cells in the NS
1) Neurons
2) Supporting cells
 1) The Neuron
• The neuron (nerve cell) is the information-
processing and information-transmitting
 The structures of a neuron
• Soma/cell body:
• Dendrites: tree branch like, receive message
• Axon: long slender like; carries/sends
message
• Terminal Buttons: little knobs or buds;
contain neurotransmitters
 Internal structures of a neuron
• Membrane: defines the boundary of the cell
• Cytoplasm: jellylike substance that fills the
inside of the cell
• Mitochondria: extract energy from nutrients;
produce ATP
• Nucleus: central structure of cells; contains
chromosomes
Internal structures of a neuron
 Types of neurons - functionally
• Sensory neurons – carry messages from sense
receptors to the brain or spinal cord
• Motor Neurons – carry messages from the
brain or spinal cord to muscles and organs
• Interneurons –They transmit information
between sensory neurons and motor Neurons.
Found in CNS
 Types of neurons- physical structure
• Unipolar neuron: one
axon attached to soma
& divides into receiving
& sending parts.
• Bipolar neurons: give
rise to one axon and one
dendritic tree, at
opposite ends of the
soma.
Multipolar neurons: the soma gives rise to one
axon and to the trunks of many dendritic trees.
Found in CNS
 Supporting cells /glial cells/neuroglia

• Astrocyte (Astroglia): physical support, provide

nutrients, clean up brain debris
• Microglia: protect from harmful microorganisms
• Oligodendroglia: provide myelin sheath in CNS
• Schwann Cells: provide myelin sheath in PNS
• Satellite Cells: physical support in PNS
Blood-brain barrier (BBB)- a semipermeable
barrier b/n blood and brain produced by the
cells in the walls of the brain’s capillaries
Neural Communication
 Neural Communication
A)Activity with in neuron
B)Activity between neurons
(synaptic communication)
 Neural Communication
• A) Activity with in neuron
neuron as a tiny battery
• The electric signals of neurons arise from the
movement of charges – in the form of ions
across the membrane.
• The charged molecules (ions) are found in the
intracellular and extracellular fluid.
• But, their concentration in the intracellular and
extracellular fluid is different
• This difference in the concentration of the ions
across the cell membrane creates an electrical
charge Membrane Potential
 Resting Membrane potential
• Neurons have a selectively permeable membrane
• During resting conditions membrane is:
– permeable to potassium (K+) (channels are open)
– impermeable to sodium (Na+) (channels are closed)
• Diffusion force pushes K+ out (concentration gradient)
• This creates a positively charged extra-cellular space.
• Electrostatic force pushes K+ in
• sodium-potassium pumps /transporters embeded in
the membrane exchange Na+ for K+, pushing three
sodium ions out for every two potassium ions they
push in
• Thus, there is a ‘dynamic equilibrium’ with zero net
movement of ions.
• The resting membrane potential is negative (- 70mv)
 Action Potential
• Action potential: The brief electrical impulse
that provides the basis for conduction of
information along an axon.
• During AP, a brief reversal of the electrical
charge difference occurs b/n the inside and
outside of cell.
 Steps during AP
– 1: stimulus depolarizes the inside of neuron to threshold
potential level
– 2: Na+ channels open, Na+ diffuses in
• Polarity briefly reversed, to +40 mV
– 3: Na+ channels close
– 3: K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out, Potential returns to
zero
– 4: All channels closed, Na-K pump moves Na+ back out &
K+ back in
– Hyperpolarization
– Resting potential restored
• Voltage-dependent ion channel: An ion
channel that opens or closes according to the
value of the membrane potential.
• Threshold of excitation: The value of the
membrane potential that must be reached to
produce an action potential.
• Depolarization: Reduction (toward zero) of
the membrane potential of a cell from its
normal resting potential and result from
opening of Na+ channels.
 Characteristics of AP
• All-or-none law: The principle that once an
action potential is triggered in an axon, it is
propagated without decrement to the end of
the fiber.
• Rate law: The principle that variations in the
intensity of a stimulus or other information
being transmitted in an axon are represented
by variations in the rate at which that axon
fires.
• Refractory periods: There are two types of
refractory period:
• Absolute Refractory Period – Na+ channels are
inactivated and no matter what stimulus is
applied they will not re-open to allow Na+ in &
depolarise the membrane to the threshold of an
action potential.
• Relative Refractory Period - Some of the Na+
channels have re-opened but the threshold is
higher than normal making it more difficult for
the activated Na+ channels to raise the
membrane potential to the threshold of
excitation.
 Conduction of AP
• Two types of conduction
1_The passive conduction of electrical current,
in a decremental fashion, down the length of
an axon.
2_Saltatory conduction; Conduction of action
potentials by myelinated axons. The action
potential appears to jump from one node of
Ranvier to the next.
 Synaptic Transmission -
Communication Between Neurons
• Synapse is the physical gap between pre- and
post-synaptic membranes. The gap is also
known as synaptic clef, and it is filled by
extracellular fluids
• Presynaptic cell- message sending neuron
• Presynaptic membrane is typically an axon
terminal
• The axon terminal contains synaptic vesicles
(round objects) that contain neurotransmitter
• Postsynaptic membrane can be:
– A dendrite (axodendritic synapse)
– A cell body (axosomatic synapse)
– Another axon (axoaxonic synapse)
• Postsynaptic thickening/density contains
receptors for transmitters
 Chemical Events at the Synapse

• The major sequence of events allowing

communication between neurons across
the synapse:
1. The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve
as neurotransmitters.
2. Neurons store neurotransmitters in axon
terminals or transport them there.
3. An action potential triggers the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
4. The neurotransmitters travel across the cleft
and attach to receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron.
5. The neurotransmitters separate from the
receptors.
6. The neurotransmitters are taken back into
the presynaptic neuron, diffuse away, or are
inactivated by chemicals.
7. The postsynaptic cell may send negative
feedback to slow the release of further
neurotransmitters.
 2 types of receptors
• 1) An ionotropic receptor- refers to when a
neurotransmitter attaches to receptors and
immediately opens ion channels.
• Most effects occur very quickly and are very
short lasting.
• Most ionotropic effects rely on glutamate or
GABA.
2) Metabotropic receptor- when
neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and
initiates a sequence of slower and longer lasting
metabolic reactions.
G protein activation – second mesenger
production - The second messenger
communicates to areas within the cell.
– May open or close ion channels, alter production
of activating proteins, or activate chromosomes.
• Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a graded
potential that decays over time and space.
• The cumulative effect of EPSPs are the basis for
temporal and spatial summation.
• inhibitory postsynaptic potential or the temporary
hyperpolarization of a membrane.
• An ISPS occurs when synaptic input selectively opens
the gates for positively charged potassium ions to
leave the cell or negatively charged chloride ions to
enter the cells.
• Serves as an active “brake”, that suppresses excitation.
 Neural Integration
• spatial summation - synaptic input from
several locations can have a cumulative effect
and trigger a nerve impulse.
• temporal summation - repeated stimuli can
have a cumulative effect and can produce a
nerve impulse when a single stimuli is too
weak.
 Drug effects on synapses
• Psychopharmacology – major concepts
– Pharmacokinetics
– Routes of administration
– Drug effectiveness
– Drug response curve
– Therapeutic index
– Drug tolerance & sensitization
– Withdrawal symptom
– Placebo effect
• EFFECTS OF DRUGS
– AGONIST
– ANTAGONIST
 Sites of drug action
• Production of NTs, storage of NTs
• Release of NTs
• Effects on receptors
– Direct agonist
– Indirect agonist
– Direct antagonist
– Indirect antagonist
• Reuptake or deactivation of NTs
Neurotransmitter Function
  Excitatory: It produces
  muscle contractions and is
Acetylcholine found in the motor neurons;
(ACh) in the hippocampus, it is
involved in memory
formation, learning and
general intellectual function.
  Excitatory: involved in
  voluntary muscle
Dopamine movements, attention,
learning, memory, and
emotional arousal and
rewarding sensations
  Inhibitory or excitatory:
  involved in mood, sexual
Serotonin behavior, pain perception,
sleep, eating behavior,
maintaining a normal body
temperature and hormonal
state
  Inhibitory: regulates pain
Endorphins perception and involved in
sexuality, pregnancy, labor,
and positive emotions
associated with aerobic
exercise—the brains natural
opiates.
Effects of Deficit Effects of surplus
Paralysis;  
A factor associated with Violent muscle
Alzheimer’s disease: levels of contractions
acetylcholine are severely
reduced associated with
memory
impairment.
Muscle rigidity; One factor associated
A factor associated with with schizophrenia-like
Parkinson’s disease: symptoms such as
degeneration of neurons in the hallucinations and
substantia nigra that produce perceptual disorders,
dopamine. addiction
Anxiety, mood disorders,  
insomnia; Autism
One factor associated with
obsessive-compulsive disorder
and depression
   
Body experiences pain Body may not give
  adequate
warning about pain
 
Neurotransm Drugs and their effects
itters
  Nicotine: increases the release of acetycholine
  Curare: blocks the receptor sites of acetycholine
  Botulin: poisons found in improperly canned food, blocks the release of
Acetylcholine acetylcholine resulting in paralysis of the muscles
  Nerve gas: continual release of acetylcholine
Scopolamine: blocks ACh receptors and impairs learning and even at low
doses causes drowsiness, amnesia and confusion
  L-dopa: converts into dopamine in the brain
Dopamine Pheneothaizine: reduces dopamine in the brain
  Amphetamines: Increases dopamine and norepinehrine, and to some extent
serotonin and activates the sympathetic nervous system.
  LSD: Impairs the reuptake of serotonin, making more serotonin available.
  Prozac: Prevents the reuptake of serotonin, making more serotonin available
Serotonin MDMA (ecstasy): Destroys serotonin nerve cells in animals with moderate
  and large doses.
Cocaine: Affects norepinephrine and serotonin, and prevents the reuptake of
dopamine in the synapse and activate the sympathetic nervous system.
Endorphins Opiates: Increases the production of endorphins
  Naloxone: blocks endorphin receptor sites
  Caffeine: Reduces the ability of the brain to produce adenosine, the “brakes”
  of the brain and CNS. Doses of 700 mg can
 Stimulants
•Caffeine – Adenosine ANT
•Nicotine – Acetylcholine AGO
•Cocaine – Dopamine, Noradrenaline AGO
•Amphetamines - Dopamine, Noradrenaline AGO
•Chat – Epinephrine, Nor epinephrine AGO
 Depressants
•Alcohol– GABA AGO
•Barbiturates– GABA AGO
•Benzodiazepines– GABA AGO
 Opiates
•Heroin– Endorphines AGO
•Morphine– Endorphines AGO
 Hallucinogens
•LSD– Noradrenaline AGO
•Marijuana– Amandamide AGO