ELECTRICAL MACHINE

What Is An Electrical Machine?

• An electrical machine is a device which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice versa.
• Electrical machines also include transformers, which
do not actually make conversion between mechanical
and electrical form but they convert AC current from
one voltage level to another voltage level.
 GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS
• When a 3-phase winding is energized from a
3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
produced.
• This field is such that its poles do no remain in
a fixed position on the stator but go on shifting
their positions around the stator.
• For this reason, it is called a rotating field.
GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS
• A three phase induction motor consists
of three phase winding as its stationary
part called stator.
• The three phase stator winding is
connected in star or delta. The three
phase windings are displaced from each
other by 120°. The windings are supplied
by a balanced three phase ac supply.
• Although the vector sum of three
currents in a balanced three-phase
system is zero at any instant, but the
resultant of the magnetic fields produced
by the currents is not zero rather it will
have a constant non-zero value rotating
in space in respect to time.
 GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS

OR

• The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the

windings and are displaced from each other by 120° electrical.
• Each alternating .phase current produces its own flux which is
sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated
from each other by 120°.
 GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS
• If the phase sequence of the windings
is R-Y-B, then mathematical equations
for the instantaneous values of the
three fluxes ΦR , ΦY ,ΦB can be written
as,
– ΦR = Φm sin(ωt)
– ΦY = Φm sin(ωt - 120)
– ΦB = Φm sin(ωt - 240)
• Where, φR, φY and φB are the
instantaneous flux of corresponding
Red, Yellow and Blue phase winding, φm
amplitude of the flux wave.
• The flux wave in the space can be
represented as shown below.
 GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS
• CASE-1 : (ωt = 0)
 ΦR =  Φmsin(0) =  0 ΦB
 ΦY =  Φmsin(0 - 120) =  -0.866 Φm
 ΦB  =  Φmsin(0 - 240) = +0.866 Φm
• The resultant of these fluxes at that
instant (φr) is 1.5φm.
Φr ΦR
• Case 2 : ωt = 60
 ΦR =  Φmsin(60) =  +0.866 Φm
 ΦY =  Φmsin(- 60) =  -0.866 Φm
 ΦB  =  Φmsin(- 180) = 0
• The resultant of these fluxes at that ΦY
instant (φr) is 1.5φm.
 GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS
• Case 3 : ωt = 120
 ΦR =  Φmsin(120) =  +0.866 Φm
 ΦY =  Φmsin(0) =  0
 ΦB  =  Φmsin(- 120) = -0.866 Φm
• The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm.
• Case 4 : ωt = 180
 ΦR =  Φmsin(180) =  0
 ΦY =  Φmsin(60) =  +.866 Φm
 ΦB  =  Φmsin(- 60) = -0.866 Φm
• The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm.
Rotating Magnetic Field
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• An electric motor converts electrical energy into a mechanical energy
which is then supplied to different types of loads.
• A.c. motors operate on an a.c. supply, and they are classified into
synchronous, single phase and 3 phase induction, and special purpose
motors.
• Out of all types, 3 phase induction motors are most widely used for
industrial applications mainly because they do not require a starting
device.
• A 3 phase induction motor derives its name from the fact that the
rotor current is induced by the magnetic field, instead of electrical
connections.
• The operating principle of a 3 phase induction motor is based on the
production of r.m.f.
 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
• This Motor consists of two major parts : Stator & Rotor.
• The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up with number
of stampings, and these stampings are slotted to receive the stator
winding.
• The stator is wound with a 3 phase winding which is fed from a 3 phase
supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the number of
poles is determined from the required speed.
• For greater speed, lesser number of poles is used and vice versa. When
stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce
alternating flux which revolves with synchronous speed.
• The synchronous speed is inversely proportional to number of poles (Ns
= 120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic flux induces current in
rotor windings according to Faraday's law of mutual induction.
CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
• Rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel cage
rotor and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).
• Squirrel Cage Rotor
– Most of the induction motors (up to 90%) are of squirrel cage
type. 
– Squirrel cage type rotor has very simple and almost
indestructible construction.
– This type of rotor consist of a cylindrical laminated core, having
parallel slots on it.
– These parallel slots carry rotor conductors.
– In this type of rotor, heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys
are used as rotor conductors instead of wires.
 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -
1. It reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor
teeth to remain under stator teeth due to magnetic attraction.
2. Increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and
rotor.
3. Increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor
conductor.
• The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting
end rings at both ends. Thus this rotor construction looks like a
squirrel cage and hence we call it.
• The rotor bars are permanently short circuited, hence it is not
possible to add any external resistance to armature circuit.
 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
• Phase Wound Rotor
• Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double layer, distributed
winding. The number of poles of rotor are kept same to the number of
poles of the stator.
• The rotor is always wound 3 phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
The three phase rotor winding is internally star connected.
• The other three terminals of the winding are taken out via three
insulated slip rings mounted on the shaft and the brushes resting on
them.
• These three brushes are connected to an external star connected
rheostat. This arrangement is done to introduce an external resistance in
rotor circuit for starting purposes and for changing the speed / torque
characteristics.
• When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically
short circuited by means of a metal collar and brushes are lifted above the
slip rings to minimize the frictional losses.
Working
 Slip ring or phase wound
Induction motor Squirrel cage induction motor

Construction is complicated due to presence

of slip ring and brushes Construction is very simple

The rotor consists of rotor bars which are

The rotor winding is similar to the stator
winding permanently shorted with the help of end
rings

We can easily add rotor resistance by using Since the rotor bars are permanently shorted,
slip ring and brushes its not possible to add external resistance

Due to presence of external resistance high

Staring torque is low and cannot be improved
starting torque can be obtained

Slip ring and brushes are present Slip ring and brushes are absent
Frequent maintenance is required due to
Less maintenance is required
presence of brushes

The construction is complicated and the The construction is simple and robust and it is
presence of brushes and slip ring makes the cheap as compared to slip ring induction
motor more costly motor
 Slip ring or phase wound Squirrel cage induction motor
Induction motor
This motor is rarely used only 10% industry Due to its simple construction and low
cost. The squirrel cage induction motor is
uses slip ring induction motor
widely used
Rotor copper losses are high and hence Less rotor copper losses and hence high
less efficiency efficiency
 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• Single phase motors are very widely used in home, offices, workshops etc.
as power delivered to most of the houses and offices is single phase. In
addition to this, single phase motors are reliable, cheap in cost, simple in
construction and easy to repair.
• Single-phase motors are used in equipment and machines that are smaller
in size and require lower horsepower (for example, one horsepower). This
include equipment such as pumps, refrigerators, fans, compressors, and
portable drills.
Why Single Phase Induction Motor Is
Not Self Starting?
• The stator of a single phase induction motor is
wound with single phase winding.
• When the stator is fed with a single phase
supply, it produces alternating flux (which
alternates along one space axis only).
• Alternating flux acting on a squirrel cage rotor
can not produce rotation, only revolving flux
can.
• That is why a single phase induction motor is
not self starting.
Double Field Revolving Theory
 How To Make Single Phase Induction Motor
Self Starting?
• As explained above, single phase induction motor is not self-starting. To make
it self-starting, it can be temporarily converted into a two-phase motor
while starting. This can be achieved by introducing an additional 'starting
winding' also called as auxillary winding.
• Hence, stator of a single phase motor has two windings: (i) Main winding
and (ii) Starting winding (auxillary winding).
• These two windings are connected in parallel across a single phase supply
and are spaced 90 electrical degrees apart. Phase difference of 90 degree can
be achieved by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting winding.
• Hence the motor behaves like a two-phase motor and the stator produces
revolving magnetic field which causes rotor to run. Once motor gathers
speed, say up to 80 or 90% of its normal speed, the starting winding gets
disconnected form the circuit by means of a centrifugal switch, and the
motor runs only on main winding.
 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• Construction of a single phase induction motor is similar to the
construction of three phase induction motor having squirrel cage
rotor, except that the stator is wound for single phase supply.
• Stator is also provided with a 'starting winding' which is used only
for starting purpose. This can be understood from the schematic of
single phase induction motor at the left.
 Working Principle Of Single Phase Induction
Motor
• When the stator of a single phase motor is fed with single phase
supply, it produces alternating flux in the stator winding.
• The alternating current flowing through stator winding causes
induced current in the rotor bars (of the squirrel cage rotor)
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
• This induced current in the rotor will also produce alternating flux.
• Even after both alternating fluxes are set up, the motor fails to start
(the reason is explained below).
• However, if the rotor is given a initial start by external force in either
direction, then motor accelerates to its final speed and keeps
running with its rated speed.
 Working Principle Of A DC Generator
• According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a
conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is
moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force) gets induced
in the conductor.
• The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf
equation of dc generator.
• If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced current
will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce an
electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into
the field.
• Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the
armature conductors. The direction of induced current is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
C
D
 A
B

D
C
 Separately excited DC motor
• A DC motor like we all know is a device that deals in the conversion of
electrical energy to mechanical energy and this is essentially brought
about by two major parts required for the construction of DC motor,
namely.
• Stator – The static part that houses the field windings and receives the
supply and,
• Rotor – The rotating part that brings about the mechanical rotations.
• Other than that there are several subsidiary parts namely the
– Yoke of DC motor.
– Poles of DC motor.
– Field winding of DC motor.
– Armature winding of DC motor.
– Commutator of DC motor.
– Brushes of DC motor.
Separately excited DC motor
 YOKE OF DC MOTOR
• The magnetic frame or the yoke of DC
motor made up of cast iron or steel
and forms an integral part of the stator
or the static part of the motor.
• Its main function is to form a
protective covering over the
sophisticated inner parts of the motor
and provide support to the armature.
• It also supports the field system by
housing the magnetic poles and field
winding of the DC motor.
 Poles of DC Motor
• The magnetic poles of DC motor are
structures fitted onto the inner wall of the
yoke with screws.
• The construction of magnetic poles basically
comprises of two parts. Namely, the pole
core and the pole shoe stacked together
under hydraulic pressure and then attached
to the yoke.
• These two structures are assigned for
different purposes, the pole core is of small
cross-sectional area and its function is to just
hold the pole shoe over the yoke, whereas
the pole shoe having a relatively larger cross-
sectional area spreads the flux produced over
the air gap between the stator and rotor to
reduce the loss due to reluctance.
 Field winding of DC motor
• The field winding of DC motor are made with
field coils (copper wire) wound over the slots of
the pole shoes in such a manner that when field
current flows through it, then adjacent poles
have opposite polarity are produced. The field
winding basically form an electromagnet, that
produces field flux within which the rotor
armature of the DC motor rotates, and results in
the effective flux cutting.
 Armature of DC Motor
• The armature winding of DC motor is attached to the rotor, or the
rotating part of the machine, and as a result is subjected to
altering magnetic field in the path of its rotation.
• For this reason the rotor is made of armature core, that’s made
with several low-hysteresis silicon steel lamination, to reduce the
magnetic losses like hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively.
• These laminated steel sheets are stacked together to form the
cylindrical structure of the armature core.
• The armature core are provided with slots made of the same
material as the core to which the armature winding made with
several turns of copper wire distributed uniformly over the entire
periphery of the core.
 Commutator of DC Motor
• The commutator of DC motor is a cylindrical
structure made up of copper segments
stacked together, but insulated from each
other by mica.
• Its main function to convert ac to dc.

Brushes of DC Motor
• The brushes of DC motor are made with carbon or graphite structures,
making sliding contact over the rotating commutator.
• The brushes are used to extract the current from external circuit to the
rotating commutator form where it flows into the armature winding.
• So, the commutator and brush unit of the DC motor is concerned with
transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically
rotating region or the rotor.
 Alternator
• An alternator is such a machine which
converts mechanical energy from a prime
mover to AC electric power at specific voltage
and frequency. It is also known as
synchronous generator.
 Construction Of AC Generator (Alternator)
• Main parts of the alternator,
obviously, consists of stator and
rotor. But, the unlike other
machines, in most of the
alternators, field exciters are
rotating and the armature coil is
stationary.
• Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator
of an alternator is not meant to
serve path for magnetic flux. Instead,
the stator is used for holding
armature winding. The stator core is
made up of lamination of steel alloys
or magnetic iron, to minimize the
eddy current losses.
 Why Armature Winding Is Stationary In An
Alternator?
• At high voltages, it easier to insulate stationary armature
winding, which may be as high as 30 kV or more.
• The high voltage output can be directly taken out from the
stationary armature.
• Whereas, for a rotary armature, there will be large brush
contact drop at higher voltages, also the sparking at the
brush surface will occur.
• Field exciter winding is placed in rotor, and the low dc
voltage can be transferred safely.
• The armature winding can be braced well, so as to prevent
deformation caused by the high centrifugal force.
• There are mainly two types of rotor used in
construction of alternator,
• Salient pole type.
• Cylindrical rotor type.
Salient Pole Type
1. Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and
medium speed alternators. 
– Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the
figure above.
– This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called
salient poles), bolted on a magnetic wheel.
– These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current losses.
Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short
in axial length.
2. Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed
alternators, especially in turbo alternators.
– This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having
slots along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
 Salient Pole Type
• The term salient means protruding or projecting. The salient pole type of
rotor is generally used for slow speed machines having large diameters
and relatively small axial lengths. The poles, in this case, are made of
thick laminated steel sections riveted together and attached to a rotor
with the help of joint.
• An alternator as mentioned earlier is mostly responsible for generation
of very high electrical power. To enable that, the mechanical input given
to the machine in terms of rotating torque must also be very high.
• This high torque value results in oscillation or hunting effect of the
alternator or synchronous generator. To prevent these oscillations from
going beyond bounds the damper winding is provided in the pole faces
as shown in the figure. The damper windings are basically copper bars
short-circuited at both ends are placed in the holes made in the pole axis
 Salient Pole Type
• When the alternator is driven at a steady speed, the relative
velocity of the damping winding with respect to the main field
will be zero.
• But as soon as it departs from the synchronous speed there
will be relative motion between the damper winding and the
main field which is always rotating at synchronous speed.
• This relative difference will induce the current in them which
will exert a torque on the field poles in such a way as to bring
the alternator back to synchronous speed operation.
• The salient feature of pole field structure has the
following special feature-
– They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter
axial length.
– The pole shoes covers only about 2/3rd of pole pitch.
– Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
– The salient pole type motor is generally used for low-speed
operations of around 100 to 400 rpm, and they are used in
power stations with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.
– Salient pole alternators driven by water turbines are called
hydro-alternators or hydro generators.
 Cylindrical Rotor Type
• The cylindrical rotor is generally used for very high speed
operation and employed in steam turbine driven
alternators like turbo-generators.
• The machines are built in a number of ratings from 10
MVA to over 1500 MVA.
• The cylindrical rotor type machine has a uniform length in
all directions, giving a cylindrical shape to the rotor thus
providing uniform flux cutting in all directions.
• The rotor, in this case, consists of a smooth solid steel
cylinder, having a number of slots along its outer periphery
for hosting the field coils.
• The cylindrical rotor alternators are generally
designed for 2-pole type giving very high
speed of

• Or 4-pole type running at a speed of

• The cylindrical rotor synchronous generator does not have any
projections coming out from the surface of the rotor, rather
central polar area is provided with slots for housing the field
windings as we can see from the diagram above.
• The field coils are so arranged around these poles that flux
density is maximum on the polar central line and gradually
falls away as we move out towards the periphery.
• The cylindrical rotor type machine gives better balance and
quieter-operation along with lesser windage losses.