CHAPTER 5

A. The Norms of Morality According to the Scholastic Philosophy

and Traditional Ethics

Morality consists of conformity and non-conformity of the human

conduct with norms. In the light of Traditional Ethics, these norms are
called the “dictates of reason”.

The Norms of Morality

Conscience
Traditional ethics considers conscience as the proximate norms of
morality. It is defined as the practical judgment of reason deciding
upon an individual act as good and to followed or
as evil and therefore, to be avoided
Types of Conscience:

1. Antecedent conscience
is a judgment before an action is done. Its main functions are to command, to
advice, to forbid, and to permit.
2. Consequent conscience
is a judgment after an act is done. It bears the following effects; inner peace and
remorse.
3. True conscience
is a conscience in which judges things truly are. Knowledge and the sense of
responsibility or one’s action help greatly in forming a correct conscience.
4. Erroneous conscience
is also called false conscience. It judges things in a distorted manner since it considers bad
acts as good and good acts as bad.
5. Certain conscience
is a subjective certainty of the legality of particular actions to be done or to
be omitted.
6. Doubtful conscience
happens when a person is not certain about moral judgment. Moralists
recommend that this kind of conscience should not be followed unless the
person has resolved the doubt.
7. Scrupulous conscience
is one which sees wrong where there is none. It is a conscience which is
extremely austere; it is always scared to commit evil.
8. Lax conscience
is the opposite of scrupulous conscience. It is the kind of conscience which
fails to see wrong where there is wrong. This conscience categorically
needs a right education.
Natural Law 
Ethics considers this as remote norm of morality.
St Thomas of Aquinas believes that the purpose is always good. A good
act therefore, is what befits the nature of man; a bad act is one that
does not befits man nature. An action, therefore, is good or bad
depending on tis conformity to the act’s nature in relation to its purpose
or end.

Eternal Law 
Traditional Ethics considers eternal law or the divine law as the ultimate
norm of morality.
 For St. Thomas Aquinas- “the divine wisdom directing all actions
and movement.”
 For St. Augustine-“the divine reason or evil of God commanding
the natural order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be
disturbed.
B. Kantian Ethics ( Immanuel Kant 1724-1804)

Kant Moral Rationalism

Kant believes that reason is autonomous. For him, reason is “the be all end all” of everything.
Following this line of thinking, Kant maintained that all truths and all knowledge are derived from
human reason. And therefore, all laws and all moral principles also came from moral reason.
According to Kant, reasons commands and we must obey it without questioning. In effect, Kant
is proposing an absolute morality, which for him requires absolute obedience.

For Kant morality is;

 
• A priori (Not based and not derived from experience)
• It is universal (It applies to everybody)
• It is absolute (Moral laws are complete and fixed)
• Moral laws are immutable (Moral laws cannot be changed)
Kant Categorical Imperative
Kant was probably best known for his theory about a single, general moral obligation
that explains all other moral obligation we have. This is the concept of Categorical
Imperative.

Moral duties can be derived from the categorical imperative which can be
formulated in 3 ways.
1. Formula of Universal Law
2. Formula of Humanity
3. Formula of Autonomy

 C. Machiavellian Principle (Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527)

 
“The end justifies the means” 
 The principle is found in The Prince, refer to gaining and maintaining political power
and in the process of creating a strong republic. In modern psychology,
Machiavellianism is one of the dark triad personalities, characterize by a two-faced
interpersonal style, a cynical disregard for morality, a lack of empathy, and focus
oneself-interest and personal gain.
 
D. Utilitarianism
The utilitarian ethics is considered the most important consequentialist
theory, whose principle is best explained by the maxim “Do whatever
produces the greatest good for the greatest number”.

The two main proponents of the principle are Jeremy Bentham

and John Stuart Mill.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

The term utility according to Bentham has two meanings. By utility, it
means that properly in any objects which tends to produce benefit,
advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness. The Utilitarian Principle
according to Bentham can be coined in the phrase “The greatest good
is the greatest pleasure of the greatest number”.
John Stuart Mill (1806-18730
 believes that human beings pursue happiness naturally and will avoid
pain or suffering. He concluded that since man naturally seeks
happiness and avoids pain, that what constitute good moral is
happiness and pain constitutes moral evil.

John Mill

Positive “Happiness is anything that is pleasurable to the greater

number of people.
Negative “Happiness is the absence of pain’