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Mutants in Our Midst Anatomy
Mutants in Our Midst Anatomy
are located.
Types of Levers
First Class Lever
Force/Effort
Images Courtesy of
Fulcrum
Load/Resistance
First class levers are like see-saws. The fulcrum is in the center with
the load or resistance on one side and the force or effort on the other.
They give the advantage of speed and strength, depending on the
fulcrums location between the two forces.
In the body an example of a first class lever is the base of the skull
which rests on the spine (fulcrum) and can move up and down (like
nodding your head “yes”).
Second Class Lever
Force/Effort
Images Courtesy of
Fulcrum Load/Resistance
Second class levers have the fulcrum at one end with the resistance
in the center and the force at the end.
The bones of the foot (tarsal bones) are an example of a second
class lever, where the joints in the metatarsal bones (mid-foot) act as
the fulcrum and the contraction of the calf muscles act as the effort.
Second class levers have the advantage of strength, as in the tarsal
bones where these bones as levers must amplify the contraction of
the calf muscle to lift the entire weight of the body.
Third Class Lever
Images Courtesy of
Force/Effort
Fulcrum
Load/Resistance
The third class lever has the fulcrum on the end like the second class
lever, but the force is in the center with the load or resistance on the
end.
Most of the levers in the body are third class levers. They are adapted
for speed of movement rather than brute strength.
The ulna of the elbow joint is an example of a third class lever. The
force (the biceps muscles contracting) is located in the center, between
the weight of the forearm (load) and the fulcrum (elbow joint that fixes
Anatomy
Now that you understand how bones and
muscles work, let’s look at how they are
similar and different between species.
First, take a look at the skeletal structure
of a human. Look at the bones that are in
your body, and then compare it to the
pictures of the skeleton of a frog.
How are they similar? How are they
different?
The Human Skeleton
Image courtesy of
The Frog Skeleton
Bone differences
Humans are bipedal and move and stand
on only two legs.
Frogs are quadrupedal, meaning they
move and stand on four legs.
There are other differences in the bones of
humans and frogs, like the proportions.
Let’s examine this mathematically!
Proportionality
The most apparent difference when you look
at the two skeletons might be that the frog
seems to have much longer legs for its body
size than the human.
Each species has a typical set of ratio of
bone lengths that give the characteristic
appearances of the body.
This mathematical approach to anatomy is
has been a popular aspect of science for
many years.
Mathematical Studies of Anatomy
The Vitruvian Man
The Vitruvian Man is perhaps the most well-known
example of the synthesis of math and anatomy.
The Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius Pollo created
a system that described the proportions of the human
body a series of fractions.
1500 years later, Leonardo da Vinci created the
drawing that later became known as the Vitruvian
Man, which showed the intrinsic geometry of the
human body—with arms straight out to the side and
legs straight and together, the body is a square; with
arms extended above the head and legs spread, the
body is a circle.
The Proportionality of the
Human Body
Leonardo da Vinci also expanded further on
the fractional proportionality of the human
body, as many subsequent artists have done,
including Michelangelo for his sculpture of
David.
The human body is essentially symmetrical
and proportional.
The body can be divided in half by the hip
bones, meaning that the length of the legs is
equal to the length of the torso (from the top of
the head to the hip bones).
Comparing Proportions
The same observation cannot be made
for frogs, who seem to have legs that
account for 2/3 of the body length.
If this were to be true for humans, the
average 12 year old, with a height of
150cm would have legs that were a
meter long!
Do you think you would be able to see
the difference?
Humans vs. Frogs
Why the Difference?
Ilium
Tibiofibula
Femur
Ischium
Tibia and Fibula
Tarsal Astragalus
Bones Tarsal Bones Calcaneum
Movement of Frog—Jumping
Jumping requires a great deal of energy, so the
muscles of the back leg of a frog must be relatively
large.
Jumping also requires a wide angle of rotation
around the hip joint for take-off and landing.
Rotation also occurs at take-off around the knee
joint.
Scientists study the axis of rotation of a bone
mathematically to determine the bone strength
and other clues that help us to better understand
anatomy.
As a Frog Jumps
As you can see, the frog
uses its long legs and
Internal rotation of the tibiofibula at the starting jump
many joints to rotate the position enhances
legs to get a great deal of
power while jumping.