THE PROCESS

OF
EVOLUTION
GROUP 8
 Mechanisms of Evolutionary
Changes
Mechanisms of evolutionary changes include
genetic drift, migration or gene
flow, mutation, natural selection and
nonrandom mating.
 GENETIC DRIFT
Genetic drift is a change in the gene pool of a population due to
chance.

Examples of genetic drift are bottleneck effect and founder effect.

Bottleneck effect takes place when population decreases due to various

environmental factors such as fires, earthquakes and floods.

The founder effect happens when a small population of organisms separates

from the larger group to invade a new area.
 GENE FLOW
Gene flow is described as
the movement of genes
from one population to
another. When this
happens, there is a
tendency to increase the
gene diversity in the
populations.
 MUTATION
Mutation occurs when there is a change in the genetic
makeup
caused by environmental stressors. This process expands
diversity of organisms.
NATURAL SELECTION

Natural selection explains the difference in survival of

individual and reproduce in a particular environment.
NON-RANDOM MATING
Nonrandom mating increases the frequency of animal with
desirable traits. It causes evolution because it intrudes the
natural pool of gene variations.
HOMOLOGY AND EVOLUTION

HOMOLOGY

:is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of

structures, or genes, in different taxa. A common example of
homologous structures is the forelimbs of vertebrates, where
the wings of bats, the arms of primates, the front flippers of
whales and the forelegs of dogs and horses are all drived from
the same ancestral tetrapod structure.
Taxa or taxon
A taxon is a taxonomic group or category. A taxon can be referred to
as a list of ranking or a specific group organism.

Vertebrates
an animal of a large group distinguished by the possession of a
backbone or spinal column, including mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, and fishes.
HOMOLOGY AND EVOLUTION

Evolutionary

-process is not a haphazard event in nature that simply

happened in a short period of time. Evolution is almost close to
the concept of change.
➢ The limbs of animals called tetrapodor
animals with four legs. Tetrapods also
include animals without four feet such as
whales and snakes.

They used to have limbs but have

lost them as they migrate or return to
water and stayed there for some
time.

Whale bones unearthed in excavation

sites in Pakistan and Egypt showed
that ancient whale used to have four
limbs but eventually lost two of them
specifically their hind legs. The front
➢ Amphibians, reptiles, and
mammals are classified as
tetrapods. Humans are
classified as tetrapods although
we walk with only two legs.
The ancestor of present-day
tetrapods lived in the water.
➢ The leaves of these plants are not the
typical green leaves we see around
us. Their function is not basically to
perform photosynthesis but either to
provide the plant with nutrients
which the soil cannot provide or
inadequately cannot give. Pitcher Plant

➢ The shape and function of each plant

in is different, yet, they are all leaves
modified to help the plant adapt and
survive their own unique
environment. Modified leaves in
plants are example of homologous
structures. Venus Flytrap
Poinsettia’s Cactus
FOSSIL RECORDS
AND EVOLUTION Emu
Some of the ratites. They are found Rheas
in south America, Africa, Australia ,
Papua new Zealand. Like presents
day birds are sometimes called avian
dinosaurs. Scientifically speaking,
birds are reptiles.

Elephant Bird
Ostrich
➢ The very first commercial ostrich farm
in the country is located in Cagayan De
Oro. It first opened in 1996 with just
three pairs of breeding ostriches
imported from Australia. The meat and
egg of ostriches very high in protein but
low in cholesterol compared to chicken.

➢ Elephant bird are the largest bird that

ever lived on Earth. They stand 10 feet
tall and weigh more than 450 kilograms.

➢ Elephant bird have strong and massive

legs, long claws, and powerful neck.
Their eggs which are about 170-200
times bigger than the chicken eggs,
enough to feed a family for a day.
➢ Ratites , elephant birds, like
ostriches, rheas, kiwi, and all
other birds, evolved from a
two-legged carnivorous
dinosaurs called therapods
during Late Jurassic Period.
Ratites Elephant bird
➢ Two of the well- known
member of the theropods are
the towering Tyrannosaurus
Rex and the Velociraptors.

Kiwi
Rheas
Theropods

The theropod (meaning "beast-footed") dinosaurs are a

diverse group of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs. They include the
largest terrestrial carnivores ever to have made the earth tremble.
 AVIAN
DINASOURS
Also known as AVES, compress the last surviving group of
theropod dinosaurs with approximately 18,000 species. This means
that there are more species dinosaur alive today than there were the
Mesozoic.
:The existence of T. Rex, velociraptor, and other dinosaurs were proven
by the discovery of their fossil remains, T. Rex fossils were discovered in
places like alberta, Canada and Texas. The first Velociraptor fossil was
found in the Gobi Desert, Outer Mongolia in 1923 by Peter Kaisen of the
American Museum of Natural History.
➢ Evolutionary biologists
established that the
transformation (evolution in
terms of size and appearance)
of the dinosaurs to modern day
birds did not occur in a snap
but gradual. The bone of the
chicken is smaller and are
proportioned its size whereas
the bones of allosaurus are
thicker and shorter to support
its size.
➢ Sanger (2015) described the transition
as "first bipedal locomotion, then
feathers, then a wishbone, then more
complex feathers that look like quill-
pen feathers, then wings." Dinosaurs
first transformed into a sparrow-size
prehistoric bird called
IBEROMESORNIS.
EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
:You might have heard of Charles Darwin
and how his historic five-years voyage
aboard HMS Beagle including his visit to
the island of Galapagos helped him
formulated his theory of evolution.
 EXTINCTION OF SPECIES

● :His book Origin of Species contains his thoughts on

evolution, and for this, Darwin is regarded today as
the father of evolution.

● :Extinction is a serious threat to the perpectuation of

life. It is not just an environmental problem confined
in one location or in several locations in this planet.
 NATURAL SELECTION IN
● ACTION
The theory of evolution states that evolution happens
by natural selection. The concept of natural selection is
very important in understanding evolution.
 NATURAL SELECTION IN
ACTION
These traits are encoded in their genes and are transmitted from one
generation to another, that is, they are inheritable. Natural selection is
nature's gatekeeper or control quality mechanism.

The heritable trait is for color. This is encoded in the genes, is

transmitted from generation to generation. Heritable trait increases
fitness. It enables the organism to survive and reproduce. Heritable
trait like fur color that increases fitness called adaptive heritable
trait. Adaptive heritable traits are important in natural selection.
 AND ORIGIN OF SPECIES

The formation of different species of honeycreepers is an example of

adaptive radiation, a rapid evolution wherein several new species is
created from a founder species in a short period of time.
 SPECIATION
Speciation describes how a new kind of plant or animal species is
created. It occurs when a group within a species separates from other
members of its species and develops its own new and distinct species
is formed in the course of evolution.

A species is the basis category of biology of biological classification,

it refers to a group of organisms or individuals that actually or
potentially interbreed in nature, This definition is totally different
from typical definition that defines species as:

“Composed of related individuals that resemble one another, are able

to breed among themselves, but are not to breed with members of an
other species”.
 There are types of speciation in nature: allopatric,
peripatric, and sympatric and artificial.

1. Allopatric speciation- occurs when members of a species are

separated into two groups due to physical barriers.
2. Peripatric speciation - occurs when small groups of individual in a
population separate from the larger group and form a new species.
3. Parapatric speciation - occurs when a species occupies a large
geographic area.
4. Sympatric speciation - occurs due to reproductive isolation.
5. Artificial speciation - occurs when humans beings intervene in the
natural reproduction using techniques or technology to create new species
specifically for economic benefits.
 EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
Dinosaurs appeared 230 million years ago ruled the earth for more
than 135 years. It was richard owen who first introduced the term
dinosaur in 1842. The term is derived from two greek words deinos,
which means “fearfully great,” and sauros, meaning “lizard”or reptile
(Gammon, 2016)

Dinosaurs , the largest land animals that ever roamed the earth,
became extinct 65 million year ago. Everything we know about them
was derived from the analysis of their fossils found in different parts
of the world. Palaeontologists unearthed complete bones of heses
reptiles in good condition giving us a good picture of how they
looked like and lived, Dinosaurs are not the only extinct animals on
TYRANNOSAURU VELOCIRAP
S REX TOR

TRICERATOPS PARASAUROLOP
HUS
 EXTINCTION
Extinction is a serious ecological problem. The extinction of one
species affects the rest of ecosystem because all creation are
interconnected by an invisible thread of life. Extinction means end of
the species. It occurs when the last member of the population dies.

A species is said to be extinct when no member of the species remains

alive anywhere in the world. A species said said to be extinct in the
wild if the only surviving member is in captivity. A captive species is
usually found in research of breeding concerns.
 PROCESS OF EXTINCTION
The earth has already experienced five main mass extinction events.
Mass extinction is a rapid geologic even that takes place in a few
million years. It occurs when at least half all species die in a short
period of time due to a catastrophic even like massive earthquake,
comet and asteroid bombardments, glaciation, sudden global
temperature change, or disease.

The largest mass extinction occurred 250 million years ago with 95%
of all species were extinct. During mass extinction , old species are
replaced with a new one.
 PROCESS OF EXTINCTION
Mass extinction is supported by fossil records. Palaeontologists at the
american Museum of Natural History observed “fossils that are
abundant in earlier rock layers are not present in later rock layers”.

Mass extinction should not be taken negatively. It is a normal cycle of

life in this planet. Mass extinction causes new life forms to emerge.
For instance, the mass extinction of dinosaurs allowed mammals to
diversity and evolve.
 EXTINCTION EVENTS
Palaeontologists recognize five main extinctions events, also known
as the Big 5.

1. The late ordovician event 348 million years ago, when 100
families went extinct.
2. Late Devonian event 360 million years ago, when 30% of
families went extinct.
3. End Permian events 245 million years ago, the biggest extinction
of all the time when over 50% of all families were lost.
4. Late Triassic event 35% of families died out.
5. The Cretaceous tertiary (K-T) event 65 million years ago which
ended the reign of the dinosaurs.
EXTINCTION EVENTS
 SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION
Scientists anticipate another mass extinction and call it the sixth mass
extinction in the history of planet earth. This expected mass extinction
is being caused by destructive human activities ( destructive fishing,
land clearing, pollution, mining, etc) and uncontrolled population
growth.

According to International Union for Conservation of Nature,

destructive human activities have caused extinction of about 514
animal species since the beginning of the 15th century. It is during this
period that industrial revolution started.
 SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION
Complete extinction of plants in the rainforest is serious
environmental problem with huge social implications.

Marine organisms also face threat of extinction brought by destructive

human activities. Our reliance on fossil fuels contributes to ocean
acidification which has serious effects on marine organisms. For
instance, coral bleaching is attributed to ocean acidification. As the
ocean slightly becomes more acidic, the ability of shell-forming
marine organisms like corals, oysters, shrimp, lobster, scallops, clams,
and many planktonic organisms, and even some fish species is
affected.
 SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION
Ocean acidification also effect the
size of shelled organisms, for
instance, clams grow smaller. The rate
of extinction of marine organisms is
almost similar to the rate of terrestrial
extinction. Signs that marine
extinction is gaining ground are:
decline in abundance of marine
vertebrates of 22% decline in marine
fishes by 38% and decline in
population of baleen whales by 80 to
90%.