Timber

The products of wood from felled trees suitable

for construction purpose are called Timber.
One of the easiest materials to be used.
Still continues to play major a part in general
building, particularly in furniture industry.
Building parts such as window frame, door frame,
trusses, wall panel, flooring.
Timber used in building parts
Popular material in construction due to:
• Simplicity in fabrication.
• Lightness
• Reusability
• Insulation from sound, heat and electricity.
• Pleasing appearance
• Resistance to oxidation, salt and acid attack.
Problems associated with the use of
timber
 Possible distortion when its moisture content changes.
 Fungal and insect attack.
 Weak fire resistance.
 Easy to creep under load.

Nevertheless with careful selection and appropriate use,

timber and timber products are very valuable range of
building materials.
Introduction to TREES

5
 Classification of trees
Trees can be divided into two groups from the point
of view of its growth
(a) Endogenous tree

(b) Exogenous tree

 Bamboo( endogenous tree)
Endogenous tree
When fibrous portion of the tree grows
inwards then it is called endogenous tree
such as bamboo and coconut tree. Such
type of trees are not suitable for
engineering works.
Exogenous tree
Trees which grow outwards about the Teak( exogenous tree)

center are called exogenous trees.

Example sal, teak, babul, etc. Exogenous
trees are used for all engineering works.
4. Medullary ray
These are group of tissues arranged in horizontal direction which goes
from bark to the center of the tree. Tissues of medullary rays collect
food and send it to different parts of the tree.
5. Heart wood
Heart wood is darker in color and is strong and durable. Heart wood is
used for all engineering works.
6. Medullary sheath
It is a layer in immediate neighborhood of the heart wood and it
encloses the pith all around.
7. Pith
Pith is the soft portion at the center of a tree
Classification of trees can also be done according to hardness and
they are of two types:

(a)Soft wood (b) Hard wood

Soft wood
Fir trees, chir trees and other coniferous trees come under this
group. Annual rings of these trees are clearly visible but heartwood
and sapwood cannot be distinguished. It has great tensile strength
and are used for masts( a tall upright post or other structure on a
ship or boat), beams etc.
 Hard wood
Teak, Mahagony, Sal come under this group. Annual rings of
these trees are less distinct and are nearer to each other as
compared to soft wood. Color of hard wood is darker than soft
wood. Hard wood is very strong and durable.
Difference between Soft wood and Hard wood

S. Property Soft Wood Hard Wood

No.
1 Colour Lighter Darker
2 Growth Faster Slower
3 Weight Lighter Heavier
4 Density Low High
5 Annual Ring Distinct Indistinct

6 Strength Strong along Strong along and

the grain across the grain

7 Conversion Easy Difficult

12
Properties of wood
a. Physical Properties b. Mechanical
Properties
Density and Specific Compressive Strength
Weight
Tensile Strength
Bulk Density

Moisture Movement Bending strength

Shrinkage Stiffness

Swelling Toughness
Heat Conductivity Cleavability
Sound Conductivity Hardness
Resistance to action of Acids and
Alkalis 13
CONVERSION AND SEASONING
 Conversion of Timber
 Seasoning of Timber
 Conversion of Timber
The process of converting the larger size into pieces of suitable
sizes to meet convenience in seasoning, marketing and use is
called conversion.
It requires sufficient skill so as to have minimum wastage.
There are various ways of conversion as follows:

1. Flat swan timber

It is most economical and simple method of conversion.
It produces wide boards with minimum waste.
Its also called as plain sawn or cut through and through system.
2. Tangential sawn timber
The log which are sawn tangentially.
3. Quarter sawn timber
The timber which are sawn quarterly
 Seasoning of timber

Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content

(drying) of timber.

It can also be defined as the process of drying the wood to

moisture content approximately equal to the average humidity
of the surroundings.

To prevent the timber from possible fermentation and making

it suitable for use.
Some of the objectives of seasoning wood are as
follows:
Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in structure.

Increase strength, durability and workability.

Reduce its tendency to split and decay.

Make it suitable for painting.

Reduce its weight.

Improves load bearing properties.

Exhibits more favorable properties like thermal & electrical insulation,

glue adhesive capacity & easy preservative treatment etc.
 Methods of seasoning
 This is a process by which moisture content in a freshly cut tree is reduced to
a suitable level.
 By doing seasoning the durability of timber is increased.
 Timber can be seasoned naturally or artificially.
A. Natural or Air seasoning
 It’s the traditional way of seasoning wood or timber. In this method wood is
dried usually by the keeping the wood exposed to air, so that
the moisture evaporates and wood is seasoned.

 It is economical but the process is too slow.

 The log of wood is sawn into planks of convenient sizes and stacked under a
covered shed in cross-wise direction in alternate layers so as to permit free
circulation of air.

 The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood and the size of
planks
B. Artificial seasoning
1. Kiln seasoning of timber is the most effective and
economical method.
Swan timber are stacked in the chamber and hot air is passed
through.
The temp. maintained from 40c to 90c.
The advantages are its rapidity ,adaptability and efficiency.
2. Chemical seasoning:
The timber is painted with hygroscopic chemical.

Common salt(NaCl) and urea are generally used.

It keeps the moisture content of the wood above saturation

point and hence due to it surface layer does not shrink during
drying even at low humidity and high temperature.

To reduce the internal stresses induced during drying. Since it

is these stresses which are responsible for defects such as
checks, etc.
3. Electric seasoning:
The seasoning is done by sending the current in stacked
timber.
Wood being a bad conductor it gets heated up removing all
the moisture.
4. Water Seasoning:
The swan timber are kept completely immersed in running
stream of water.
Consequently the sap, sugar, and gum are leached out and are
replaced by water. The logs are then kept out in air to dry.
It prevents the possibility of warping and cracking of wood.
It is a quick process but the strength of the wood are reduced.
Marketing Forms of Timber
 Commercial forms of
Solid Timber available in the market
a. Battens: They are thin timber strips with a thickness ranging
from 50 to 100mm and 125 to 200mm wide.

b. Planks: They are timber pieces whose thickness is less than

50mm and width exceeding 50mm.

c. Boards: The timber pieces whose thickness is less than 50mm

and with a width of 100mm or more.

d. Baulks: The timber pieces with cross section exceeding 50mm X

50mm.
e. Deals: These are softwood ranging from 50 to 100mm thick and width
not exceeding 250mm.

f. Scantlings: These timber pieces are of small width and thickness,

say 50 to 100mm wide.

g. Quarterings: These are square pieces of timber with size of 50 X

50mm.
 Loss In Conversion
In the process of converting logs to timber, it leads to the loss of some amount
of timber which depends upon the product and is shown as follows:
1. Planks
i. From round logs = 40% loss of logs
ii. From square logs = 30% loss of logs
2. Scantlings
i. From round logs = 50% loss of timber
ii. From square logs = 40% loss of timber
 According to market survey

Cost
To the government(blue pine timber) = Nu.338.98

To the private firms and others, the cost depends upon the quantity the
customers purchase.
Import
Timber is imported mostly from different parts of Paro,
Bumthang and Haa.
 Classification of Timber
1. On the Basis of its Position
i. Standing Timber implies a living tree.
ii. Rough Timber forms a part of the fallen tree.
iii.Converted Timber or Lumber are logs of timber sawn into planks,
posts, etc.

2. On the Basis of Grading ( IS: 6534)

All grading specifications are clearly distinguished between structural
or stress grading, and commercial or utility grading based on Indian
Standard classification.

I. Structural Grading
Structural Grading refers to the principle by which the material is
graded on the basis of visible defects which have known effects on the
strength properties of the material.
 II. Commercial Grading
Commercial Grading refers to the principle by which the material is graded by
consideration of the usefulness of the material and price factors.

i. Grade A : This classification is based on dimensions and general appearance. The

dimensions of lengths, widths and thicknesses of converted materials are measured.

ii. Grade B : This classification is based on the best ultimate use of the material. Here
each grade is further divided into A, B and C classes to indicate occurrence of defects.
Only two lengths are recognized, Long (L) which is 5m and above, and Short (S) that is
under 5m.

For example : BAL (Beam, A-class, long). PBS (Plank, B-class, short)

i. Grade C : This classification is based on qualitative evaluation of defects.

ii. Grade D : This classification is based on evaluation of units of defects and fixing
the permissible number of standard volume of area or the material in each grade.
3. On the Basis of Modulus of Elasticity:

1. Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 12.5KN/mm2

2. Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 9.8KN/mm2 and below 12.5KN/mm2

3. Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 5.6KN/mm2 and below 9.8KN/mm2

4. On the Basis of Availability:

1. X- Most Common, 1415m3 or more per year.

2. Y- Common, 355m3 – 1415 m3 per year.
3. Z- Less common, below 355m3 per year.

5. On the Basis of Durability:

5. High durability- average life of 120 months and over.

6. Moderate durability- average life of less than 120 months but of 60 months or more.

7. Low durability- average life of less than 60 months.

6. On the Basis of Seasoning Characteristics:
Timbers are classified depending upon their behavior to cracking and splitting during normal air-
seasoning practice under three categories.

i. Highly refractory (Class A) are slow and difficult to season-free from defects.

ii. Moderately refractory (Class B) can be seasoned free from surface defects.

iii.Non-refractory (Class C) can be rapidly seasoned free from defects.

7. On the Basis of Treatability:

(a)Easily treatable.

(b)Treatable but complete preservation not easily obtained.

(c) Only partially treatable.

(d) Refractory to treatment.

(e) Very refractory to treatment, penetration of preservative being practically nil from the sides
and ends.
 
Timber is used for the following works:
1. For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles.

2. For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing.

3. For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric
poles and gates.

4. For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and

strutting, packing of materials.

5. For decorative works like showcases and furniture.

6. For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats.

7. For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wall
papers.

8. For making sports goods and musical instruments.

 
 Characteristics of good Timber
The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and finished
appearance.

1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.

2. Dark colour.
3. Uniform texture.
4. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
5. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
6. Free from the defects in timber.
7. Heavy weight.
8. No woolliness at fresh cut surface
Defects of Timber
 Following are the main defects of timber:
1. KNOTS : these are the sections of the branches of the tree which will be
present on the surface of the wood in the form of hard dark pieces.
2. SHAKES: these are the cracks and splits in the felled log due to
many causes
3. TWISTED GRAIN OR FIBRE: these defect is caused
tree itself due to wind.

4. UPSET OR RAPTURE: Discontinuity of fibers

5. PRESENCE OF SAPWOOD: less durable than the hardwood.

6. SLOPING GROWING: imperfect growth of tree cells.

7. CRACKS: Fiber disruption

 Treatment of timber
before using in woodwork
 All woods other than teak should be as far as possible treated
with preservatives before they are used.

 Most of the other woods need protection even after they are
used in construction and they should be maintained against
deterioration.

 Thus, treatment of timber with preservatives should be carried

out before it is used in timber work and regular maintenance
like painting should be carried out after construction.(Timber
can be made fairly fire resistant by soaking in ammonium
phosphate, sodium tetra borate or sodium arsenate.)
Class work:
Make notes on various treatment processes of timber
before it is used.
 Preservative Treatment of Timber
Preservative treatment of timber is carried out by one of the following
methods. The method to be used depend on use of wood in
construction.
1. Charring : In this method, the surface is burnt and
burnt part acts as a protective coat.
2. Painting with tar : Tar obtained from distillation of
coal, has wood preservative oil in
them.
3. Treatment with preservatives

a) Brush and spray treatment : Solvents or emulsions are

used for this purpose. They are brushed or sprayed on the wood.
b) Immersion : In this method the materials are immersed in the
preservative solution for penetration.
c) Hot and cold open tank treatment : This is the
method for treating fence posts with preservatives like creosote.
The timber is placed in a steel tank immersed in a preservative
and heated to about 85-90o C. Then tank is allowed to cool
slowly with timber immersed in the solution.
d) Pressure and vacuum treatment: There are three
methods in this procedure- the full cell process, the double
vacuum method and the empty cell process.

In the full cell process, the timber is placed in closed vessel

and is subjected to a low vacuum for about an hour. During this
process, a preheated preservative is introduced until the vessel is full.
Pressure up to 14 kg/cm2 is applied, gradually increased and kept
constant for several hours, after which the pressure is reduced and the
solution is drained out.
The double vacuum method is the variation of the full cell
process.
In the empty cell process, the initial vacuum is omitted and
various other features are incorporated.
e) Treatment by diffusion: this is carried out on green timber
just after conversion to green timber. Very soluble boron compounds
are applied on the surface of the timber.
The pieces are then stacked together and covered with impermeable
cover to prevent evaporation. Over a period of one month or more,
the boron diffuses into the wet timber and acts as a preservative.
Selection of wood for buildings
 Woods are associated with different properties hence their usage
differs from doors and windows to that of beams and columns.
 Especially, teak the most common hardwood is used in door frames,
beams and columns.
 The qualities for a timber to be used in construction
1. Wood class
2. Hardness and durability
3. Easiness of working
4. Colour
Woods used in making windows frame, beams and columns of a
Bhutanese architecture.
 Testing of wood
 It is mainly visually examined for defects.
 Determination of moisture content.
 Tensile strength.
 Moisture content is tested mainly for construction purposes because
of it’s drawbacks.
1. Shrinkage of wood
2. Prone to attack by organisms
3. Lack of fit of woodwork
4. Blistering of paints
Seasoned timber ready for construction purposes.
 Timbers available in Bhutan
The most commonly used wood are Mixed conifer, Blue pine and Hardwood.
General Properties
 Moderately hard
 Durable
 Highly resinous(in case of mixed conifer)
Thank You