Emulsifiers Contd.

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Measurement of emulsion stability

Instability mechanisms
 Mathematical model
• Stokes law
vStokes = −2gr^2(ρ2 − ρ1)/9η1
• where, vStokes is the creaming velocity, r is the radius of the
particle, g is the acceleration due to gravity, ρ is the density, η
is the shear viscosity, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the
continuous and dispersed phases, respectively
• For example, droplets of an oil phase (ρ2 = 910 kg m−3)
suspended in an aqueous phase (η1 = 1 mPa s, ρ1 = 1000 kg
m−3) will cream at rates of 0.17, 0.68, 4.3 and 17 mm per day
for r = 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1 μm.
• Schematic representation of the vertical distribution of droplets in an oil-in-water emulsion that is
unstable to creaming: (I) initial system (onelayer); (II) intermediate times (three-layers); (III) final
system (two-layers).
 Visual observation
• The extent of creaming can be characterized by a
creaming index (CI):
CI = 100 × HS/HE
• HE is the total height of the emulsion and HS is the
height of the serum layer.
• The creaming index should start at zero and increase
over time as the emulsion droplets move upwards
until a fairly constant value (cifinal) is reached when
all the droplets are packed tightly into the cream layer
• The initial slope of a plot of CI versus time (d(CI)/d(t)) is related to
the creaming velocity: v = d(CI)/d(t)×HE/100. The value of Cifinal
depends on the initial droplet concentration in the emulsion and
the packing of the droplets within the cream layer:
• CIfinal = 100 ×[1 − φ/P]
 Accelerated stability test
• Creaming instability of an emulsion can often
be accelerated by centrifuging an emulsion at
a fixed speed for a certain length of time.
• Later measured .
 Cereal based products
• Bakery pdts - Facilitate processing
– Dough conditioner
– Crumb softener
– wetting agent
– Improves distribution of shortening in dough
• control starch gelation in macaroni, spaghetti,
and snack foods
• Flour fortification is possible – flat bread
• Ice cream;
– Improve fat dispersion,
– facilitate fat–protein interactions,
– control fat agglomeration,
– facilitate air incorporation,
– impart dryness to formed products,
– confer smoother texture due to smaller ice crystals and air
cells, increase resistance to shrinkage,
– Reduce whipping time, and improve melt-down
• Candy
– Prevent bloom formation
– Ctrl viscosity
– Improve shelf stability of center filled chewing gum
• Others:
– Meat analog pdts
– Formulating flavour emulsion
– Coffee whiteners
– Margarine – antispattering, emulsion formation,
modifying crystal structure
– Cocoa powder dispersion
– Peanut butter – prevent oil phase seperation
 Stabiliser and thickener
• To improve stability, texture, viscosity and make food
products firmer
• Natural from either plant or animal origin
• Stabilisers in foodstuffs prevent food components from
separating; they also give food a consistent texture.
• Thickeners play a useful role in giving food body.
 Stabiliser &
Thickener

Polysaccharide Protein

Non ionic Anionic

Cationic
 Non ionic polysaccharide
• Hydroxyethyl cellulose and hydroxypropyl
cellulose are widely used as food stabilisers
• Cellulosic ether polymer containing OH groups
attached to the chains of hydroxypropylated
glucose molecules.
b. hydroxyethyl cellulose polymer c. hydroxypropyl cellulose polymer
 Guar gum
• Polysaccharide soluble in cold water which is used as a food
additive (thickener).
• It also delays the sedimentation of solids or the creaming of
fats.
• Guar gum is composed of molecules of galactose and
mannose (galactomannan) and is obtained naturally from
plant species (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)Taub.).
• Since this polysaccharide is hydrophilic, when subjected to
water it forms a thick viscous gel material.
 Anionic polysaccharide
i. Xanthan gum
- To modify rheological properties of food products.
- Xanthomonas campestris - submerged aerobic
fermentation
- Linear hydrocolloid with a (1→ 4) linked β-d-glucose
backbone
- An excellent thickening agent.
- Its blend with guar gum and/or lbg, it makes an effective
stabilizer for ice cream, ice milk, sherbet, and water ices. A
combination of xanthan gum with sodium alginate is
reported to serve as a milk shake stabilizer.
Ii. Alginates :
– From brown seaweeds
– Composed of random sequences of chains of -d-
mannuronic and -l-guluronic acids attached with 1→4
linkages – alginic acid (E400)
– Alginates do absorb water readily
– Sodium alginate(e401) – soluble in water, used as
thickening agent
• Limitation - insoluble in a high concentrated calcium
• Sequestering agent added to overcome
– Propylene glycol alginate (PGA) is an ester of alginic
acid and propylene glycol.
– It is an emulsifier, stabiliser and thickener used in
food products such as milk
Iii. Carrageenan (E407):

• Carrageenans exist in three main types as kappa, iota and

lambda carrageenan and are found naturally in red seaweeds
(marine algae – rhodophyta)
• Composed of sugar units of galactose and anhydrogalactose
joined with sulphate linkages to form a polymer chain.
• The sulphation pattern of carrabiose is actually the basis of
the classification of carrageenans.
• The number of ester sulfate groups and anhydro bridges
present on the backbone distinguishes these 3.
• Kappa- and iota-carrageenans are applied as food stabilisers
or gelling agents & lambda – thickening agent
iv. Pectin (E440)
• Found application in the food industry as a gelling agent,
thickener, texturiser, emulsifier and stabiliser.
• This compound is obtained naturally as sugar-beet pulp,
which is the residue left from sugar extraction comprising d-
galacturonic acid units which are linked through -1, 4-
glycosidic linkages
• With a degree of esterification greater than 50% are classified
as high methoxyl pectin while those with a degree of
esterification less than 50% are classified as low methoxyl
pectin.
V. Agar:
• Extracted from seaweed - numerous applications in the food
industries, mainly as a gelling agent.
• Made up of agarobiose polymers - repeating units of
disaccharides composed of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-
galactose
 Cationic polysaccharide
• Chitosan food stabilisers composed of D-
glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
units linked by -(1–4) linkages
• use as a food additive (stabiliser) due to its
abundance
 Protein based stabiliser
• Soya protein – veg alternative
• Gelatin (E441)- product of the structural and
chemical degradation of collagen