Computational Fluid

Dynamics – An
Introduction

MECN4024A – Gas Dynamics & Propulsion

MECN4031A – Compressible Flows
Overview

• Revision of Flow terminology

• History, methodology and application of CFD
• Mesh dependence, convergence, stability & boundary
conditions
• Introduction to solver types and relevance
• Viscosity / Turbulence models and the impact on results
• Mesh and time-step independence
• Generalised approach to CFD modelling
Revision of Flow Terminology

• Mach number represents impact of compressibility effects

on flow
• Subsonic: M ~< 0.7
• Transonic: M ~ 0.7 – 0.99
• Sonic: M = 1.00
• Supersonic: M ~ 1 – (3 – 7)
• Hypersonic: M > (3 – 7)
Revision of Flow Terminology

• Viscous / inviscid: description of the impact of viscous

effects on flow
• At higher Reynolds numbers inertia effects dominate
viscous ones
• Separation: flow no longer conforms to object profile
• Reynold’s number indicates the impact of viscous effects
on flow
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• Navier-Stokes describes most flows
– Laborious, or impractical, to solve manually
– Describes transient and steady-state flows
• Bernoulli’s equation: inviscid, steady-state derivative
• Euler equations: compressible, inviscid, transient derivative
• Source, panel and potential flow methods also tend toward
numerical solution
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• Discretised in time and space, equations can be made
linear
• For meaningful results, significant discretisation required
• More nodes can give better resolution but poorer quality
• Create mesh of flow domain (NOT body in flow) and
perturb
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• Finite Difference:
– Based on Taylor series expansion
– Employs simple backward-, central- and forward-differencing to
describe derivatives as function of variable
– 1st or 2nd order accurate
– Suitable for non-linear relationships
• Finite Element:
– Domain subdivided into sub-domains and simple variation applied
– Suitable for linear relationships
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• Finite Volume:
– Developed to solve heat transfer and fluid flow equations
– Elements of both finite difference and finite element schemes
– Similar to finite difference since equations depend on surrounding
nodes
– Fixed-value boundary conditions inserted into equations after
formulation and modified for derivatives (versus finite element)
• Meshless methods also exist (e.g. Discrete Element
Modelling (DEM)) but these are less common in CFD
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• Finite element methods well known (e.g. Nastran)
• Fluent uses a finite volume solver
• Other solvers may use finite difference or hybrid schemes
• Typically use pre-processor, solver and post-processor
• Single application may cover several roles
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• CFD methods typically applied to homogeneous flows,
including thermodynamic analysis
• Mixing, solidifying / melting and multi-phase flows also
analysed
• Typically used for supersonic or slower flows due to
chemistry of hypersonic flow
• Not applicable to very rarefied flow
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
• Boltzmann equation applicable throughout but
computationally expensive
• Euler equations have limited applicability
• Knudsen number used to evaluate
• Kn = λ/L
– λ: mean free path (distance between particles)
– L: characteristic length of body
History, Methodology &
Application of CFD
Discrete Collisionless
Particle Boltzmann Equation Boltzmann
Model Equation

Navier- Conservation
Continuum Euler
Stokes equations do not
Model Eqns
Eqns form a closed set

0 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 ∞

Inviscid limit Free-molecule limit
Knudsen Number
Mesh Dependence, Convergence,
Stability & Boundary Conditions
• If mesh is too coarse solution likely to be coarse
• If mesh is too fine likely to add some accuracy but at
extreme computational cost
• Solution considered acceptable if it is mesh independent
and physically possible

MECN4021/4024
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Mesh Dependence, Convergence,
Stability & Boundary Conditions
• Convergence:
– Property of a set of numerical equations to represent the analytical
solution (if it exists)
– In CFD this is more often used to denote the tendency of variable
values at points in the domain towards fixed values as the solution
progresses
– Converged value is generally the true physical value
– There is typically no analytical solution to CFD problems
Mesh Dependence, Convergence,
Stability & Boundary Conditions
• Stability:
– A process is stable if the equations move toward a converged
solution such that discrete solution errors do not swamp the results
– In CFD, a solution is stable if the intermediate results of a solution
are reasonable
– Unstable solutions (e.g. time step too big) don’t converge
Mesh Dependence, Convergence,
Stability & Boundary Conditions
• Boundary Conditions:
– Physical:
• Solid wall
• (Symmetry)
– Numerical:
• Inlets / Outlets (Pressure / velocity)
• Pressure / mass boundaries
• Turbulence variables
Mesh Dependence, Convergence,
Stability & Boundary Conditions
• Walls can be stationary or moving
• Use of axisymmetry or symmetry can greatly reduce
computation
• Improper boundary conditions can produce converged but
meaningless solutions
• Avoid unnecessary viscous / turbulent boundary conditions
Solver Types (Fluent)

• Solver types vary according to the manner in which the

state equations are linearised and solved
• Two methods of formulation:
– Density-based (Coupled)
– Pressure-based (Segregated)
• Two methods of linearisation:
– Implicit
– Explicit
Solver Types (Fluent)

• Pressure-based (Segregated) solver:

– Equations for each cell linearised with respect to one
field variable e.g. x-momentum equation linearised with
respect to u
– 1 equation per cell
– Solves for momentum variables, then energy variables
and lastly other scalars (e.g. radiation), sequentially
– Only implicit formulation available as a result of
linearisation scheme
– Generally not suitable for transient flows
Solver Types (Fluent)

• Density-based (Coupled) solver:

– Equations for each cell linearised with respect to field
variables e.g. y-momentum with respect to v
– N equations per cell (N is the number of field variables)
– Momentum and energy equations solved
simulataneously and thus, all values updated
simultaneously
– Implicit or explicit formulation available
– Applies to most time-dependent solutions but
computationally expensive
Solver Types (Fluent)

• Explicit formulation:
– Equations linearised in terms of known field variable values only
and solved sequentially i.e. each unknown in one equation only
• Implicit formulation:
– Equations linearised in terms of known and unknown field variable
values and solved simultaneously i.e. each unknown in several
equations
Solver Types (Fluent)

• Pressure-based solver typically used for incompressible

and mildly compressible flows
• Density-based solver typically used for high-energy or
highly compressible flows (high mass or energy flux)
• Some low speed flows can still be high energy flux flows
Solver Types (Fluent)

• Implicit solvers:
– Generally converge faster
– Require more memory
• Explicit solvers:
– Generally converge slower
– Less memory intensive
Viscosity / Turbulence Models

• Viscous effects generally described in empirical terms

since they are not mathematically truly predictable (chaotic)
• Viscous effects typically fluctuations of small scale and high
frequency
• Numerical modelling thus a best approximation but prone
to shortcomings
• Typically drag overestimated as a result
Viscosity / Turbulence Models

• Linear, Κ-ε, Κ-ω and Spalart-Allmaras commonly used

• Κ-ε is a simple “complete model” of turbulence using 2
equations developed for pipe flows
• Spalart-Allmaras is an inviscid single equation model
designed for aerospace applications good for highly
rotational flows
Generalised Approach to CFD
Modelling
• Determine suitability of 2D, Axisymmetric or 3D model to
required solution
• Lower order models solve faster
• Symmetry an important tool in minimising computation time
• Create geometry for meshing in pre-processor
• Generate coarse mesh for initial processing and validation
of boundary conditions
• Assess flow conditions to specify a suitable solver i.e.
mass / energy flux, effect of viscosity or compressibility
Generalised Approach to CFD
Modelling
• Solve and determine points of refinement required etc.
• Refine and solve iteratively
• Assess all solutions in terms of physical feasibility
• Verify mesh independence
• Where possible, compare to experimental data to prove
validity
• Post-process as required
• Avoid the lure of “pretty pictures”!