Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Some Elements in The History of Arab Mathematics: Mahdi Abdeljaouad
Some Elements in The History of Arab Mathematics: Mahdi Abdeljaouad
Some Elements in The History of Arab Mathematics: Mahdi Abdeljaouad
Mahdi ABDELJAOUAD
Summary
Introduction Domains studied by Arabs Arithmetic and number theory Algebra Conclusion
Science of numbers
The first one is speculative or theoretical and is interested to abstract numbers and to pytagorical and euclidian arithmetic.
The second one is active or practical and is interested to concrete numbers and to the needs of merchants.
10
Speculative arithmetic
Inspired from Aristotle philosophy Two approaches : 1. Euclids Elements Books VII VIII and IX 2. Pythagoras through Nicomachus of Gerases Introduction to Arithmetic.
Abu'l-Wafa (d.998) Bagdad Book on what Is necessary from the science of arithmetic for scribes and businessmen This book : ... comprises all that an experienced or novice, subordinate or chief in arithmetic needs to know, the art of civil servants, the employment of land taxes and all kinds of business needed in administrations, proportions, multiplication, division, measurements, land taxes, distribution, exchange and all other practices used by various categories of men for doing business and which are useful to them in their daily life.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 13
Abu'l-Wafa (d.998) Bagdad Part I: On ratio. Part II: Arithmetical operations (integers and fractions). Part III: Mensuration (area of figures, volume of solids and finding distances). Part IV: On taxes (different kinds of taxes and problems of tax calculations). Part V: On exchange and shares (types of crops, and problems relating to their value and exchange). Part VI: Miscellaneous topics (units of money, payment of soldiers, the granting and withholding of permits for ships on the river, merchants on the roads). Part VII: Further business topics.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 14
Arab fractions Arab fractions are those used before them by Egyptians. These are unit fractions or capital fractions whose numerator is always 1. In Ancient Egypt, they were indicated by placing an oval over the number representing the denominator.
1/3 is noted :
15
Arab fractions
One half One third One fourth One tenth
All computations have to be described by the means of unit fractions. You will not say Five-sixth (5/6) but One third plus one half (1/3 of )
16
Kushiyar Ibn Labban al-Gili (d.1024) Bagdad Book on fundaments of Indian calculus
... These fundaments are sufficient for all who need to compute in Astronomy, and also for all exchanges between all the people in the world.
18
Alphabetical numeration
9 91 92 93 94 95 8 81 82 83 84 85 7 71 72 73 74 75 6 61 62 63 64 65 5 51 52 53 54 55 4 41 42 43 44 45 3 31 32 33 34 35 2 21 22 23 24 25 1 11 12 13 14 15
0 01 02 03 04 05
91
20
Most arithmeticians are obliged to use [Hindu arithmetic] in their work: - it is easy and immediate, - requires little memorisation, - provides quick answers, - demands little thought
21
Al-Uqludisi (around 952) Bagdad ... Therefore, we say that it is a science and practice that requires a tool, such as a writer, an artisan, a knight needs to conduct their affairs; since if the artisan has difficulty in finding what he needs for his trade, he will never succeed; to grasp it there is no difficulty, impossibility or preparation.
22
Al-Uqludisi (around 952) Bagdad Official scribes nevertheless avoid using [the Indian system] because it requires equipment [like a dust board] and they consider that a system that requires nothing but the members of the body is more secure and more fitting to the dignity of a leader.
23
24
Denominator 7
with no lines separating the vertical numbers.
Mathematicians from Andalousia and North Africa have invented the separation line between numerator and denominator. (around the XIIth Century)
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 25
27
The name Algebra is a Latin translation of an Arab word : al-Jabr This word is a part of the title of the first textbook presenting equations and treating how to solve them : Kitab al-Jabr wal muqabala written by al-Khwarizmi (780-850).
Algorithmus is a Latin transcription of his name
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 28
al-Jabr :
30
31
x + 10x = 64
32
Development of algebra
M. ibn Musa Al-Khwrizmi (780 - 850 Baghdad) : India
abu-Kmil (d.950 Egypt) : al-Khwarizmi + Euclide
Arab algebra Abu Kmil (850 - 930 Egypt) Kitab al-Kamil fil Jabr (i) On the solution of quadratic equations, (ii) On applications of algebra to the regular pentagon and decagon, and (iii)On Diophantine equations and problems of recreational mathematics. The content of the work is the application of algebra to geometrical problems. Methods in this book are a combination of the geometric methods developed by the Greeks together with the practical methods developed by al-Khwarizmi mixed with Babylonian methods.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 34
Arab algebra Al-Karji (953 Bagdad - 1029) Kitab al-Fakhri and Kitab al-Badic fil Jabr He gives rules for the arithmetic operations including (essentially) the multiplication of polynomials. He usually gives a numerical example for his rules but does not give any sort of proof beyond giving geometrical pictures. He explicitely says that he is giving a solution in the style of Diophantus. He does not treat equations above the second degree. The solutions of quadratics are based explicitly on the Euclidean theorems
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 35
Arab algebra As-Samawal al-Maghribi (1130 Baghdad - 1180 Iran) al-Bhir fil hisb (i) Definition of powers x, x2, x3, ... , x-1, x-2, x-3, ... . Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of polynomials. Extraction of the roots of polynomials. (ii) Theory of linear and quadratic equations, with geometric proofs of all algorithmic solutions. Binomial theorem Triangle of Pascal. Use of induction. (iii)Arithmetic of the irrationals. n applications of algebra to the regular pentagon and decagon, and (iv)Classification of problems into necessary problems, possible problems and impossible problems .
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 36
Arab algebra Omar al-Khayyam (1048 - 1131 Iran) Risala fil Jabr wal muqabala (Treatise on Algebra and muqabala)
He starts by showing that the problem : (1) Find a right triangle having the property that the hypothenuse equals the sum of one leg plus the altitude on the hypotenuse. (2) x3 + 200x = 20x2 + 2000 (3) He founds a positive root of this cubic by considering the intersection of a rectangular hyperbola and a circle. (4) He then gives approximate numerical solution by interpolation in trigonometric tables.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 37
Arab algebra Omar al-Khayym (1048 - 1131 Iran) Treatise on Algebra and muqabala
Complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections He demonstrates the existence of cubic equations having two solutions, but unfortunately he does not appear to have found that a cubic can have three solutions. What historians consider as more remarkable is the fact that Omar al-Khayyam has stated that these equations cannot be solved by ruler and compas methods, a result which would not be proved for another 750 years.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 38
Arab algebra Sharaf ad-Din at-Tusi (1135 - 1213 Iran) Treatise on equations In the treatise equations of degree at most three are divided into 25 types : twelve types of equation of degree at most two, eight types of cubic equation which always have a positive solution, then five types which may have no positive solution. The method which al-Tusi used is geometrical. He proves that the cubic equation bx x3 = a has a positive root if its discriminant D = b3/27 - a2/4 > 0 or = 0. For all cubic equations he approximates the root of the cubic equation.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 39
41
42
Conclusion
Arab mathematics had started by translations of Greek , Indian, Syriac and Persian works. All this knowledge has been integrated in Arab culture with Arab words and thinking. Men of different cultures and regions of the world, independently from their races and religions - They worked together in Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, Marrakech or in Tunis - They invented new mathematics and wrote treatises and textbooks used elsewhere. - Their contributions to mathematics were known here in Sicilia and transferred to Latin and Italian languages.
Palerme, 25-26 novembre 2003 43
References
Storia della Scienza Enciclopedia Italiana Vol. III, 2002 on the web In English :
www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/ HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html
In French :
44