Describe the structure and

functions of digestive system

Dr.Indrani Basak
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Physiology
Objective:
• Parts of GI tract and give their functions.

• Correlate the functional anatomy with functions of GI tract.

• Layers of wall of GI tract, and give their functional importance.

• Difference in sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on GI functions.

• Organization of enteric nervous system.

• GI regulations and mention the principle of each mechanism.

Functional Aspects:
Physiologically, GI functions have three aspects:

(a) Secretion

(b) Motility

(c) Digestion & absorption.

GI SECRETION: Mainly salivary, gastric, pancreatic, biliary and intestinal.

• These secretions contain enzymes that split various food materials into their absorbable
form.
GI MOTILITY: Process of grinding & mixing is initiated when food present in oral
cavity.

• Contraction of smooth muscle in the wall of gastrointestinal tract produces various

movement of the tract. This is called GI motility.

• Adequate chewing of food and effective gastric and intestinal motilities help in
grinding food particles and facilitate their mixing with digestive juices.

• GI motility also exposes chyme (digested food) to epithelial surface of intestine for their
transfer into general circulation. This is called absorption of food.

• DIGESTION & ABSORPTION OF FOOD: Food materials are digested by various

enzymes present in GI secretions.
 Parts of GI System
1. Mouth (oral cavity) and Salivary glands- GI tract begins with mouth (oral cavity).
Digestion of food starts in mouth with chewing. Salivary glands open into the oral
cavity and pour their secretion (saliva) into it.
2. Pharynx - Oral cavity opens into pharynx which in turn is continuous with the
esophagus.
3. Esophagus - Transmits food from oropharynx into stomach.
4. Stomach- Bag like structure that stores and grinds food, and mixes food with gastric
juice.
5. Small Intestine – (Succus entericus)
a. Duodenum
b. Jejunum- Most of the nutrients takes place in jejunum and ileum.
c. Ileum
5. Biliary System- Biliary secretions are poured into duodenum.

6. Pancreas- Pancreatic secretions are poured into duodenum. Pancreatic and intestinal

secretions are rich in various enzymes that cause digestion of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.

7. Large intestine - Absorbs water and electrolyte and temporarily stores concentrated and

undigested material, which then enters rectum.

8. Rectum- Final segment of large intestine stores fecal matter & contracts when distended.
 Structure of the Wall of GI Tract

1.Mucosa: Innermost layer of GI tract.

• Epithelium
• Lamina propria
• Muscularis mucosa.
a) Epithelium
• Single layer of epithelial cells lines the mucosa. The cells are tightly bound to each

other at their edges by tight junctions.

• The epithelium is mainly a stratified squamous epithelium.

• In stomach and intestine, mucosa is lined by simple columnar epithelium that

facilitates secretion and absorption.

• Epithelium contains endocrine cells (enterochromaffin cells) that secrete local

hormones.
2) Lamina Propria
• Just below the epithelium is the lamina propria consisting
of mainly loose connective tissue that contains collagen
and elastin fibers.

• This sub-layer is rich in blood vessels, lymph nodes and

lymphatic ducts, nerve fibers, and capillaries.

• This layer supports the epithelium and also binds

epithelium to the muscularis mucosa.

• The lymphatic tissues present in this layer form the local

immune system and prevent the entry of pathogens that try
to penetrate mucous membrane to enter into the body.
3) Muscularis Mucosa:
• Outermost layer of mucosa and intestinal smooth muscles are present in this part of
mucosa. The muscle fibers are arranged in two thin layers, an inner circular and outer
longitudinal layer.

• Contraction of muscularis mucosa in the stomach and intestine throws the mucous
membrane into folds and ridges.

• In the intestine, these mucosal folds called plica increase the surface area for absorption.

• Contraction of muscularis mucosa in small intestine produces local movements that

facilitate the process of digestion and absorption.
Submucosa:
• Next to the mucosa is the submucosa. It consists mainly of loose connective
tissue and is highly vascular.

• The submucosal layer contains a network of nerve fibers known as

submucosal plexus or plexus of Meissner.

• Autonomic nerve fibers supplying muscles and blood vessels of GI tract

closely interact with Meissner’s plexus.

• In intestine, submucosa contains lymphatic tissue.

Muscular Layer:
• This is called muscularisexterna.

• It consists of two layers of smooth muscles: the inner circular and the outer longitudinal layers.

• Nerve plexus is located between muscle layers, called as myenteric plexus or plexus of Auerbach.

• Muscularis externa primarily controls the motility of GI tract that mixes and circulates the
gastrointestinal contents and propels them along the lumen of the tract.

Serosa :
• This is the outermost layer of the GIT.

• It consists mainly of a thin layer of connective tissue covered with a layer of squamous
mesothelial cells and provides external protection to GIT.
Functional Aspects:
• GI functions have three aspects:
• Secretion
• Motility
• Digestion and Absorption.
• GI SECRETION:
• Salivary
• Gastric
• Pancreatic
• Biliary
• Intestinal
• GI MOTILITY:
• Peristalsis
• Migrating motor complex
• Retro peristalsis
• Segmentation
 Intestinal Modifications:
•Villi -In small intestine, from the luminal surface, finger like projections extend into the
lumen. These are called villi.

Surface of each villus is covered with an epithelial cell layer.

• Microvilli-Small projections arise from surface of these epithelial cells, known as microvilli.

• Brush border- Microvilli are collectively called as brush border.

• The total luminal surface area of human intestine is about 300 m2.

• Center of each villus is occupied by lymphatics called lacteals, and capillaries, venules and
nerve fibers.
Peyer’s Patches:
• Aggregates of lymphoid tissue in mucosal-submucosal regions of the intestinal wall.

• These are present more in number in ileum.

• They serve local immune functions in intestine.

• They prevent organisms to enter blood stream from the intestinal lumen.

• They also secrete mediators of inflammation (cytokines) that alter motility.

• These cytokines play role in genesis of inflammatory bowel disease & Crohn’s disease.
Innervation of GI Tract:
Sympathetic Innervation- 
• Generally inhibitory.

Sympathetic stimulation results in:

1. Inhibition of motor activity resulting in relaxation of GI smooth muscles.

2. Stimulation or contraction of sphincters.

3. Inhibition of GI secretions.
Parasympathetic Innervation

• Generally stimulatory.

• Via vagus nerve, pelvic nerves.

Parasympathetic stimulation results in:

• Increased motility and exocrine secretions

Enteric Nervous System:
• This is intrinsic nervous system of the GI tract.

• This includes myenteric and submucosal nerve plexuses

• This is also known as Third division of ANS.

• Mini-brain of gut

• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic fibers project to the neurons of the

myenteric and submucosal plexuses, and control GI activities via these
neurons.
ENS as the Mini-brain of gut:
• They have sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. Therefore, ENS is loosely called
the ‘mini brain’ for the gut.

• The interneurons signal the changes in ENS motor fibers that alter the activities of effector
tissues like smooth muscle cells, glandular cells, epithelial cells and vascular cells.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS IN ENS:
• Acetylcholine (ACh) - Primary neurotransmitter in preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
that regulate secretory and motor activities of GI tract.

• VIP, serotonin, enkephalins, substance P, norepinephrine, GABA, ATP, NO and CO play

important role in regulation of GI functions.
GI Sphincters

• Specialized circular muscles

• Regulate antegrade (forward) movement of food

• Prevent retrograde (reverse) expulsion of the same.

There are six sphincters in GI tract:

1. Upper esophageal sphincter

2. Lower esophageal sphincter

3. Pyloric sphincter

4. Ileocecal sphincter

5. Internal anal sphincter

6. External anal sphincter

• Sphincter of Oddi –

• Wall of the duodenum

• Regulates secretion of bile and pancreatic juice into the intestine.

GI Immune System

An extensive immune mechanism is developed in GI system, which

is called gastrointestinal immune system. This system includes:

1. Mesenteric lymph nodes

2. Peyer’s patches

3. Phagocytic cells and immunocytes

 Immunological Cells in GI System
• Immunological cells in GI system constitute about 50% of total immunocytes in body.
• Immunocytes in GI tract are B and T cells, epithelial lymphocytes, plasma cells, mast cells
and macrophages.
• These cells secrete chemicals that mediate immunological and inflammatory responses in GI
tract.
• They secrete antibodies locally in response to antigens that enter through GI tract.
• Other chemicals secreted by immunocytes are leukotrienes, cytokines, prostaglandins and
histamine.
• These chemicals not only mediate immunological responses also influence activities of smooth
muscles of GIT.
• GI immune system plays an important role in pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases
like ulcerative colitis.
 PRINCIPLES OF GI REGULATIONS
Neural Regulation
• Digestive system is regulated by nerves arising locally in GI tract (intrinsic neural
control) and the nerves innervating gut (extrinsic neural control).
Intrinsic Neural Regulation
• Intrinsic nerves of GI system form enteric nervous system, sometimes called as third
component of ANS.
• Nerves are arranged in submucosal layer as Meissner’s plexus and in the muscle layer as
Auerbach’s plexus.
• Meissner’s plexus performs sensory functions and Auerbach’s plexus performs motor
functions.
• Intrinsic neurons mediate local or short reflexes.
• Intrinsic nerve plexuses are connected and controlled by extrinsic nerves.
Extrinsic Neural Regulation

• Extrinsic nerves regulating GI functions belong to

sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

• Sympathetic system to the GI tract is inhibitory and the

parasympathetic system is stimulatory.

• Extrinsic nerves mediate long reflexes

Reflex Control:
• There are two types of neural reflexes that operate in GI system: short or
local reflexes and long or central reflexes

• Afferent pathway in GIT forms afferent limb for both local and central reflexes.

• There are many chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the mucosa and

muscularis mucosa that are extensively connected to intrinsic plexuses. Actions
of these receptors mediate local reflex activity.
Hormonal Regulation
• Intrinsic Hormones:

• Many hormones are secreted from endocrine cells of GI tract. These hormones are
called GI hormones. They mainly act in a paracrine fashion. Many hormones also
have systemic functions. Therefore, GI tract is sometimes designated as an endocrine
organ.

• Extrinsic Hormones:

• Thyroxine

• Cortisol
THANK YOU