UNIT 2

Transistor
Bipolar junction Transistor
• A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is
a three-terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions
which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled
device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector and
the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and
holes as charge carriers.
• A signal of small amplitude if applied to the base is available in the
amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the
amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external
source of DC power supply to carry out the amplification process.
There are two types of bipolar junction transistors – NPN transistors and PNP
transistors. A diagram of these two types of bipolar junction transistors is given
below. As it clear from the figure that the transistor has three regions emitter,
base and collector emitter region is heavily doped, base is lightly doped and
collector is moderately doped.
 Modes of
operation

Active Saturation

Cutoff
Active Mode
• In the active mode, one junction (emitter to base) is forward biased
and another junction (collector to base) is reverse biased. In other
words, if we assume two p-n junctions as two p-n junction diodes,
one diode will be forward biased and another diode will be reverse
biased.
Saturation Mode
• In the saturation mode, both the junctions of the transistor (emitter
to base and collector to base) are forward biased. In other words, if
we assume two p-n junctions as two p-n junction diodes, both the
diodes are forward biased in saturation mode. We know that in
forward bias condition, current flows through the device. Hence,
electric current flows through the transistor.
Cutoff Mode
• In the cutoff mode, both the junctions of the transistor (emitter to
base and collector to base) are reverse biased. In other words, if we
assume two p-n junctions as two p-n junction diodes, both the diodes
are reverse biased in cutoff mode. We know that in reverse bias
condition, no current flows through the device. Hence, no current
flows through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is in off state
and acts like an open switch.
• The cutoff mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for
switch OFF application.
Construction of BJT
Working
• For understanding the working of a transistor lets consider an NPN
transistor. the BE junction is forward biased and the CB junction is reverse
biased. The width of the depletion region at the Junction CB is higher when
compared with the depletion region of the Junction BE. When the BE
junction is forward biased it decreases the barrier potential, hence the
electrons start flowing from the emitter to the base. The base region is very
thin and it is lightly doped when compared with other regions, hence it
consists of a very small number of holes, the electrons that are flowing from
the emitter will recombine with the holes present in the base region and
start to flow out of the base region in the form of the base current. A large
number of electrons that are left will move across the reverse bias collector
junction in the form of the collector current.
 NPN Transistor connection

Where, are the emitter, base, and collector current respectively. Here the base current will be very
small when compared with emitter and collector current, therefore,

Based on the Kirchoff’s Current Law, we can frame the current equation as
Different Configurations of BJT
• Any transistor has three terminals, the emitter, the base, and the
collector. Using these 3 terminals the transistor can be connected in a
circuit with one terminal common to both input and output in three
different possible configurations.
• The three types of configurations are
• Common Base
• Common Emitter
• Common Collector configurations.
• In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.
Common Base Configuration
• The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common
terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The common
base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in the
following figure.
• For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB
configuration. When the emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward
biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel the emitter
electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the
collector to contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is
kept constant throughout this.
• In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current and
the output current is the collector current
• Current Amplification Factor (α)
• The ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in emitter
current (ΔIE) when collector voltage VCB is kept constant, is called as
Current amplification factor. It is denoted by α.

•
Expression for Total Collector current
Hence the above derived is the expression for collector
current. The value of collector current depends on base
current and leakage current along with the current
amplification factor of that transistor in use.
Characteristics of CB configuration
Common Emitter Configuration
• The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common
terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The common
emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in
the following figure.
Base Current Amplification factor (β)
Common Collector Configuration
• The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as
common terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The
common collector connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

•
Transistor as an Amplifier
• A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak
signal. The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base junction,
makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is
maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure
shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.
The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an appreciable change in the
output. The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the collector current, which when flows through
the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output
voltage, which shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.

Example
Let there be a change of 0.1v in the input voltage being applied, which further produces a change of 1mA in the
emitter current. This emitter current will obviously produce a change in collector current, which would also be 1mA.

A load resistance of 5kΩ placed in the collector would produce a voltage of

5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5V

Hence it is observed that a change of 0.1v in the input gives a change of 5v in the output, which means the
voltage level of the signal is amplified.
Biasing In the Transistor
• Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the
functioning of the circuit. A transistor is based in order to make the
emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction
reverse biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an
amplifier. The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the
maintenance of proper collector emitter voltage during the passage of
signal is known as Transistor Biasing. The circuit which provides
transistor biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.
• “The main aim of biasing is to allow the DC analysis of the system
when transistor is used as an amplifier”
Need for DC biasing
• If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be
amplified. Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be
met.
1) The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
2) The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
• If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external
sources, so that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC
signals to be amplified, then this problem can be avoided. The given DC
voltage and currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in active
region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC biasing is needed.
Operating Point
• The steady state operation of a transistor depends a great deal on its
base current, collector voltage, and collector current values and
therefore, if the transistor is to operate correctly as a linear amplifier,
it must be properly biased around its operating point.
• The point which is obtained from the values of the IC (collector
current) or VCE (collector-emitter voltage) when no signal is given to
the input is known as the operating point or Q-point in a transistor.
• The operating point is also called quiescent (silent) point or simply Q-
point because it is a point on IC – VCE characteristic when the
transistor is silent or no input signal is applied to the circuit.
Diagram of operating point
Faithful Amplification
• The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification.
This amplification when done without any loss in the components of
the signal, is called as Faithful amplification.
• Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of
input signal by increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC
signal is applied at its input.
In the above graph, the input signal applied is completely amplified and reproduced without any losses. This can be
understood as Faithful Amplification.

The operating point is so chosen such that it lies in the active region and it helps in the reproduction of complete
signal without any loss.
If the operating point is considered near saturation point, then the amplification will be as under.

If the operation point is considered near cut off point, then the
amplification will be as under.
Hence the placement of operating point is an important factor to achieve faithful amplification. But for the transistor
to function properly as an amplifier, its input circuit (i.e., the base-emitter junction) remains forward biased and its
output circuit (i.e., collector-base junction) remains reverse biased.

The amplified signal thus contains the same information as in the input signal whereas the strength of the signal is
increased.
Some important factor regarding biasing
• Other important factor regarding biasing factor must be considered
i.e at a desired operating point and the effect of temperature.
• The temperature causes the transistor parameters such as the current
gain, transistor leakage current, Vbe which in turn changes the
operating point parameters. Due this unfaithful amplification has
occurred. Which is undesirable.
• Therefore temperature stability is required for maintaining the
operating point and is specified by the term as stability factor i.e “S”
Stability Factor
• Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current
with respect to the reverse saturation current keeping Ib & Beta
constant.
S=dIc/dIco keeping Ib and beta constant
Bias Stabilization
• The stability of a system is a measure of the sensitivity of a network to
variations in its parameters. In any amplifier employing a transistor
the collector current IC is sensitive to each of the following
parameters:
1) β increases with increase in temperature
2) VBE decreases about 7.5 mV per degree Celsius (°C) increase in
temperature
3) ICO (reverse saturation current): doubles in value for every 10°C
increase in temperature
• Any or all of these factors can cause the bias point to drift from the
designed point of operation. Table 4.1 reveals how the level of ICO
and VBE changed with increase in temperature for a particular
transistor. At room temperature (about 25°C) ICO 0.1 nA, while at
100°C (boiling point of water) ICO is about 200 times larger at 20nA.
For the same temperature variation, increased from 50 to 80 and VBE
dropped from 0.65 to 0.48 V.
Shift in DC Q-Point after Variation in
temperature