Organisational

Strategies and
Language
Techniques
 LESSON OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson , students should be able to :

● outline the requirements and structure of the paper 2 exam

● recall what writer’s purpose and main point are through the given pop quiz
● recall the difference between writer’s purpose and main point through the given
pop quiz
● recall the different modes of writing
● explain what is meant by Language Technique as well as what is meant by
Organisational Strategies.
WHAT ARE YOUR EXPECTATIONS
OF PAPER 2 EXAM?
Exam Structure- Communication Studies

The Communication Studies examination is divided into TWO papers:

Paper 1- 45 multiple choice items
Paper 2- THREE compulsory essay type questions

Content of Exam
Module 1- Gathering and processing information
Module 2- Language and Community
Module 3- Speaking and Writing
NB: All modules are tested in paper 1 and each essay type question test each module consecutively.
 The Paper 2 Exam

Paper 02 -Three compulsory questions

(2 hours 30 minutes)
Paper 01.

Number of Questions
This paper consists of three compulsory questions, one
on each of the Modules in the syllabus.
 2. Syllabus Coverage
This paper requires more depth of understanding than questions in Paper 01.

3. Question Type
Questions may be presented using words or illustrations, or a combination of
words and
illustrations.
Questions 1 and 2 require the candidate to respond in the form of an essay.
 POP QUIZ

POP QUIZ
1. Explain the difference between the main point and the purpose.
2. What is the rule governing the writing of the purpose? In essence, what integral component
must be included?
3. List the four main types of discourses
4. For the four categories of writing states, state three verbs that can be linked to each.

5. State one characteristic that differentiates the narrative from descriptive.

6. State four elements that will allow you to distinguish a persuasive piece of writing
Writer’s purpose Mode/genre of writing Language Organisational
Techniques Strategies
 What are organisational Strategies?
Organisational strategy refers to HOW an author
presents information. It is the means by which the
writer achieves his/her intended purpose.
It is the way/style the author has structured the
information within his/her piece.

For instance, if the writer wants to compare two things,

comparison and contrast will be used to highlight the
similarities and differences in the items being compared.
 Language Techniques
When you read a passage or hear some form of verbal communication, there are linguistic features which make an impression on you. This is so
because the words, graphs and symbols chosen and their arrangements are telling you something about the writer`s/speaker`s purpose and context.
The use of various linguistic, grammatical, punctuations and features to convey the overall purpose of the speaker/writer are referred to as language
strategies.

In assessing the language strategy of a speaker/writer or in devising strategies of your own, you may want to consider the following:

The Linguistic Features

These refer to the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary that the writer uses to convey his intended message. Consider what the use of each of the
following might mean:

● Type of language used: spoken or written, formal or informal, personal or impersonal, standard or creole?
● The vocabulary used: prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, slang or formal, repetition of key words and phrases?
● The phrasing and sentence structure: simple or complex, economical or verbose, direct or circumlocutory
● Connotative or Denotative use of language: words used emotively - to convey arouse feelings, to suggest; words used referentially - to
emphasize or state factual content; words which seem to primarily about conveying facts but which are really intended to arouse
emotions.
● Significant use of punctuation marks- eg. pause marks such as full stops, question signs, exclamation marks and suspension dots.
● Lay-out of the page- use of banner headlines, newspaper (column) or broad-sheet lay-out, advertising-copy layout, verse-lay-out, portrait
or landscape lay-out.
● Typographical features- use of font sizes, bold face, capitals, spacing, indentation, italic/roman type.
● Use of pictures and graphics - help make written concepts plain; reinforce concepts; help to stimulate for younger readers.
● Organisational
features of
narrative and
descriptive
discourse
 Flashback

● A flashback is an episode that took place in a time earlier than the present
action.
● It may be used for different purposes: to increase tension, to move the story
forward by providing relevant back-story, to provide a context to current
events, to give background to explain a conflict, to provide insight into a
character’s motives, etc.
 Flashback

● Flashbacks are often presented through dream sequences (the character

falls asleep and dreams about past events or occurrences) and memories
(the character may see or hear or feel something and it interrupts his/her
present musings and takes him/her back to a past moment).
 Flashback

● Flashbacks can also be presented in a straightforward fashion so the author

will indicate that he/she is going back in time.
● For example: Jonathan thought of last year’s charity gala and the disaster it
turned out to be and there and then the whole horrid affair flooded his
consciousness. It was Thursday night. Late. About 11:40 p.m. or so. He
walked into the town hall …
 Flash-forward

● This strategy is opposite to flashback in that it takes the narrative forward in

time from the current time in the sequence of events being presented. The
author interrupts the current flow of events to insert an event that will take
place at some future time.
 Foreshadowing

● This is a hint that an author gives in advance of what is to come in the

narrative.
● This can be done through the characters’ dialogue or given through the title
of the text or a chapter in the narrative.
 Flash-forward

● Flash-forward can be used to create momentum in a narrative as well as

motivation for driving plot and can help readers understand the significance
of characters’ actions.
 Foreshadowing

● Authors use foreshadowing to create suspense and it therefore adds

dramatic tension in the narrative as it has readers anticipating what is going
to happen next. It may also assist readers in comprehending later outcomes
in a narrative.
 Time sequence

● Much artistic discourse uses time sequencing as an organisational strategy.

Often this is chronological. A narrative discourse often has an initiating
event, problems and complications that build to the climax, then the strands
of the plot are worked out, leading to a resolution.
 Time sequence

● Authors will use chronological order to help the audience to understand the
relationship between the causes and effects of events. This way the
audience will be able to rationalise why things happen in the way they do.
 Comparison

● This is a description that focuses on the similarity between two or more

things, ideas or individuals.
● An author may use comparison in order to emphasise a quality or make the
quality more vivid in the minds of the audience.
 Comparison

● The author may present the comparison using various literary devices such
as metaphor, simile, analogy or even personification.
● Comparisons tend to capture the audience’s attention and make it easier for
them to understand concepts, because the comparisons used are general
ones taken from real life.
 Contrast

● This is the opposite to comparison as it focuses on the differences between

two or more things, ideas or individuals.
● An author may use this strategy in order to make a concept clearer to
readers. It strengthens the author’s argument and therefore makes it stand
out more in the minds of the audience. Naturally this is done with the
author’s purpose in mind.
 General to specific

● With this method of organisation the author moves from broad observations
on the topic to giving more specific details.
● Authors tend to use this strategy to focus on important details.
 Spatial order

● In this kind of description, the information on items is presented according to

their physical position in relation to each other or according to their location
in space.
● Organisational
features of
expository,
argumentative
and persuasive
discourse
 Cause and effect

● The author presents information to explain the reason something happens –

the cause, and what happens because of it – the effect.
● This strategy helps the reader make a connection between action and
consequences or understand the relationship between two things.
 Classification

● The author arranges or groups ideas, information or things according to

shared characteristics or similarities so that it is ordered into categories.
● For instance, natural disasters may be classified according to types.
 Comparison and contrast

● Throughout the discourse the author highlights the similarities and

differences between two or more things, ideas or individuals.
 Concession and rebuttal

● The author acknowledges a point or argument that opposes the position

he/she is presenting (concession) before proving it wrong (rebuttal).
● By acknowledging the point or argument the author shows he/she
understands the other position and is somewhat unbiased but at the same
time his/her rebuttal discredits that very position as it attacks the point that
he/she just acknowledged.
 Concession and rebuttal

● This shows the audience that the opposing argument is weak and invalid
and highlights the author’s argument as being more acceptable.
 Counter Arguments

● Similar to concession and rebuttal, counterarguments make allowances for

the opposite perspective. The difference is that a counterargument is an
objection to an objection.
 Counter Arguments

● This means that in presenting his/her argument, the author may indicate
that people holding opposing views may have an objection to it. The author
outlines this objection and immediately refutes that objection by presenting
a new argument that opposes the objection raised – that is, the
counterargument
 Counter Arguments

● Be mindful that a counter argument has two features – the objection and a
rejection of the objection.
● What the counterargument does is contradict the objection raised and
support this with evidence or reasoning. It encourages the audience to
dismiss objection as invalid and accept the counter argument presented.
 Definitions

● The author explains the meaning of a concept, idea or thing or clarifies a

concept, idea or thing by explaining what it is or what it represents.
 Evidence

● The author presents facts and data to prove or disprove something or to

substantiate and strengthen claims made by the author.
● Evidence may be in the form of facts, statistical or historical data, testimony,
quotes from reputable sources and even logics.
● Evidence adds credibility to an argument, thus increasing the chances of the
audience trusting the claim made.
 Illustrations and examples

● The author makes an idea clearer by providing illustrations and examples.

These provide further evidence and support for an argument. They might
help explain a concept or give details in the form of examples that will prove
a theory.
 Illustrations and examples

● For example, in order to prove that hurricanes are dangerous, the author
may illustrate this statement by identifying past hurricanes and giving
examples of the damage that they caused.
 Juxtaposition

● Used mainly in argumentative and persuasive discourse, the author will

often juxtapose a conflicting argument or statement with a counterargument
in order to strengthen his claim.
● This will be done in a bid to discredit the other side of the argument while at
the same time presenting the writer as thoughtful and well reasoned. This
tends to make the author’s claims more acceptable to the audience.
 Lists

● The author provides a series of details, facts or images.

● This helps to add to the general mood of the piece and brings across factual
information clearly and succinctly. It therefore brings clarity to the author’s
argument and allows the audience to follow his/her line of reasoning to its
conclusion.
 Order of importance

● The author presents and develops his/her points based on their level of
importance.
● The ideas are often presented from most important to least but the reverse
order may also be used.
 Problem and solution

● The author presents a problem, details the specifics of the problem (i.e. the
problem is explained) and then gives an outline as to how the problem can
be solved.
 Reasons

● The author rationalises a point of view by outlining causes, justifications or

explanations.
● This often creates empathy and leads the audience to believe that the
argument’s end point is a logical conclusion.
 Refutations

● The author argues against a particular position. He/she identifies the

mistake or weakness in an argument and presents reasoning to indicate
why the conclusions or reasons are mistaken, flawed, weak or wrong.