THE EMPIRICAL

BEGINNINGS OF
BASIC
CONTENTS OF
EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
by
CLEUS REAMICO
PhEd 301
Socio-Anthropological Foundations of Education
THEORIES
OF
LEARNING
 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. identify the notable persons who proposed
theories of learning;
2. discuss the contributions of the authors of
the theories of learning;
3. discuss the educational implications of the

OBJECTIVES 4.
theories of learning;
Discuss the significance of the theories of
learning to the currently practiced system
of education.
• Way back in ancient Greece, the philosopher, Plato, first pondered the question “How does an
individual learn something new if the subject itself is new to them”
• Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students learn.
Learning theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire, retain and
recall new information.
 3 MAIN SCHEMA’S OF LEARNING
THEORIES
BEHAVIORISM COGNITIVISM CONSTRUCTIVISM
Learning and behavior Learning is internal Knowledge is
changes are acquired and is a result of a constructed by
by linking stimuli and student processing adapting new
response and organizing new information based on
information previous experience
Behaviorism

• Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a
behaviorist's mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt.
• Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus learning occurs. Learning is achieved when
the provided stimulus changes behavior. A non-educational example of this is the work done by Pavlov.
• Through his famous “salivating dog” experiment, Pavlov showed that a stimulus (in this case ringing a bell
every time he fed the dog) caused the dog to eventually start salivating when he heard a bell ring.
• The dog associated the bell ring with being provided with food so any time a bell was rung the dog
started salivating, it had learnt that the noise was a precursor to being fed.
• Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for
establishing rules, especially for behavior management.
Cognitivism

• In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive rather
than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism.
• There is still a behavior change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information.
• Cognitive theories were developed in the early 1900s in Germany from Gestalt psychology by Wolfgang Kohler. In
English, Gestalt roughly translates to the organization of something as a whole, that is viewed as more than the sum
of its individual parts.
• Cognitivism has given rise to many evidence-based education theories, including cognitive load theory, schema
theory and dual coding theory as well as being the basis for retrieval practice.
• In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganizes information, either by finding new explanations
or adapting old ones.
• This is viewed as a change in knowledge and is stored in the memory rather than just being viewed as a change in
behavior. Cognitive learning theories are mainly attributed to Jean Piaget
• Examples of how teachers can include cognitivism in their classroom include linking concepts together, linking
concepts to real-world examples, discussions and problem-solving.
Constructivism

• Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas

based on our own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is
unique to the individual learner. Students adapt their models of
understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or resolving
misconceptions.
• Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist
approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum (see below) is a great
example of constructivism in action.
• As students are constructing their own knowledge base, outcomes cannot
always be anticipated, therefore, the teacher should check and challenge
misconceptions that may have arisen. When consistent outcomes are
required, a constructivist approach may not be the ideal theory to use.
• Examples of constructivism in the classroom include problem- based learning,
research and creative projects and group collaborations.
 • Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or
respondent conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered
by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In
simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to
1. Pavlov’s produce a new learned response in a person or animal.
• The most famous example of classical conditioning

Classical was Pavlov’s experiment with dogs, who salivated in

response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a
bell was sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog

Conditioning learned to associate the sound with the presentation

of the food. 
• John Watson proposed that the process of classical
conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able
to explain all aspects of human psychology.
• Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply
patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the
existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all
individual differences in behavior were due to different
experiences of learning. He famously said:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and
the race of his ancestors” 
 Classical Conditioning Examples
• There are three stages of classical conditioning. At each stage the
stimuli and responses are given special scientific terms:
 Stage 1: Before Conditioning
• In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned
response (UCR) in an organism.
• In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a
behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a
natural response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has
been learned yet.
• For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In
another example, a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire
(UCR).
• This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is
called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc.
• The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is
paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
 Stage 2: During Conditioning
• During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is
associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now
becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
• For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a
certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be
associated with a specific person (CS).
• For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should
occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during
the same time. Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or
cue for the unconditioned stimulus.
• Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a
number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However,
one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not
necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as
being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).
Stage 3: After Conditioning
• Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response
(CR).
• For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice
perfume (UCS) is now found attractive (CR). Also, chocolate (CS)
which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) now
produces a response of nausea (CR).
Classical Conditioning in the Classroom
• The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less
important than those of operant conditioning , but there is a still need
for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive
emotional experiences with learning.
• If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then
this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia.
• For example, if a student is bullied at school, they may learn to associate
the school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a
particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their
academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or
punished in class by a teacher.
 Critical Evaluation
• Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the
environment and supports nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to
describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts
to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more
likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and
nurture (environment).
• A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is
because it's based on empirical evidence carried out by controlled
experiments For example, Pavlov (1902) showed how classical conditioning
could be used to make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell.
• Classical conditioning is also a reductionist explanation of behavior.
This is because a complex behavior is broken down into smaller
stimulus-response units of behavior.
• Supporters of a reductionist approach say that it is scientific. Breaking
complicated behaviors down to small parts means that they can be
scientifically tested. However, some would argue that the reductionist
view lacks validity. Thus, while reductionism is useful, it can lead to
incomplete explanations.
• A final criticism of classical conditioning theory is that it is deterministic.
This means that it does not allow for any degree of free will in the
individual. Accordingly, a person has no control over the reactions they
have learned from classical conditioning, such as a phobia.
• The deterministic approach also has important implications for psychology
as a science. Scientists are interested in discovering laws which can then
be used to predict events. However, by creating general laws of behavior,
deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings
and their freedom to choose their own destiny.
2. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

• Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist who spent nearly

his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on
comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of
connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational
psychology.
Law of Readiness
• First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of
Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that
learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through
preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a
preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot
be automatically instilled in him. For example, unless the typist, in
order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make
much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.
Law of Exercise
• The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that
drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning
and according to Thorndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are
strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened
when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore,
is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case
connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or
loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human
learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or
memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need
exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.
Law of Effect
• The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or
steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection.
Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the
connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the
weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of
effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are
learned and selected, while those which are not satisfying are
eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must
obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the
satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an
important condition of ‘law of effect’.
Besides these three basic laws, Thorndike also refer to five subordinate
laws which further help to explain the learning process. These are -
Law of Multiple–Response

• According to the law, the organism varies or changes its response till
an appropriate behavior is hit upon. Without varying the responses,
the correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the
individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather
than mechanically persisting in the same way. Thorndike’s cat in the
puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it
hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.
The Law of Set or Attitude
• Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which
determines not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or
annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a
century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly,
unless he sets to get first position and has the attitude of being at the
top, would while away the time and would not learn much. Hence,
learning is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or
to excel.
Pre-potency of Elements
• According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important
or essential in the situation and neglects the other features or
elements which may be irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to deal
with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes
analytical and insightful learning possible. In this law of pre-potency
of elements, Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning which
was more emphasized by the Gestaltions.
Law of  Response by Analogy
• According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or
acquisitions while learning a new situation. There is a tendency to
utilize common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar
past situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated
by the earlier acquired skill of driving a motorcycle or even riding a
bicycle because the perspective or maintaining a balance and
controlling the handle helps in steering the car.
The Law of Associative Shifting
• According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is
capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive.
Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a
command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said ‘ stand up’.
After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the
command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the over all
command of ‘stand up’ was found sufficient to evoke the response in
the cat by standing up or her hind legs.
 Educational Implications of the Theories
• According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its
difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.
• A small child learns some skills through trial-and-error method only such as
sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching, the child also rectifies the
writing after committing mistakes.
• In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting
teaching in the classroom the students should be properly motivated.
• Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial-and -
error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in
learning any concept.
• Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong
habits of the children can be modified, and the good habits strengthened.
• The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus,
the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the
teacher.
• The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behavior of the delinquent
children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.
• With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the
children such as anger, jealousy etc.
• The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must
observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not
hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required.
• The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct
oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.
Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
• The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R
framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such
associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the
nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory
was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to
dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like
all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained
without referring to any unobservable internal states.
• Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect –
responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of
affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that
situation, (2) law of readiness – a series of responses can be chained
together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if
blocked, and (3) law of exercise – connections become strengthened
with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A
corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the
likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures)
will decrease in strength.
• The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the
presence of identical elements in the original and new learning
situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In later
versions of the theory, the concept of “belongingness” was
introduced; connections are more readily established if the person
perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt
principles). Another concept introduced was “polarity” which
specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in which
they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also
introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards affect not only
the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent
connections as well.
Application
• Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for
animals and humans. Thorndike was especially interested in the
application of his theory to education including mathematics, spelling
and reading, measurement of intelligence, and adult learning.
• The classic example of Thorndike’s S-R theory was a cat learning to
escape from a “puzzle box” by pressing a lever inside the box. After
much trial-and-error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the
lever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established
because it results in a satisfying state-of-affairs (escape from the box).
The law of exercise specifies that the connection was established
because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) and
was rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law
of readiness).
Principles
• Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)
• A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to
the same action sequence (law of readiness).
• Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered
situations.
• Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
3. GESTALT THEORY
• The word Gestalt was originally coined by Christian von Ehrenfels, the
actual originator of the term Gestalt as the Gestalt psychologists were
to use it.  In 1890, in fact, he wrote a book called On Gestalt
Qualities. Max Wertheimer was one of his students.
• Along with Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer was
one of the principal proponents of Gestalt theory which emphasized
higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of behaviorism. The
focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of “grouping”, i.e., characteristics
of stimuli cause us to structure or interpret a visual field or problem in
a certain way.
Laws of Organization
The primary factors that determine grouping were:
(1) proximity – elements tend to be grouped together according to their nearness,
(2) similarity – items similar in some respect tend to be grouped together,
(3) closure – items are grouped together if they tend to complete some entity, and
(4) simplicity – items will be organized into simple figures according to symmetry,
regularity, and smoothness.

• These factors were called the laws of organization and were explained in the context of
perception and problem-solving.
• Wertheimer was especially concerned with problem-solving. Wertheimer provides a Gestalt
interpretation of problem-solving episodes of famous scientists (e.g., Galileo, Einstein) as well as
children presented with mathematical problems. The essence of successful problem-solving behavior
according to Wertheimer is being able to see the overall structure of the problem: “A certain region in
the field becomes crucial, is focused; but it does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural view
of the situation develops, involving changes in functional meaning, the grouping, etc. of the items.
Directed by what is required by the structure of a situation for a crucial region, one is led to a
reasonable prediction, which like the other parts of the structure, calls for verification, direct or
indirect. Two directions are involved: getting a whole consistent picture and seeing what the
structure of the whole requires for the parts.”
Application

• Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning, although it applies most directly to
perception and problem-solving. The work of James J. Gibson on Information Pickup Theory was
strongly influenced by Gestalt theory.
Example

• The classic example of Gestalt principles provided by Wertheimer is children finding the area of
parallelograms. As long as the parallelograms are regular figures, a standard procedure can be
applied (making lines perpendicular from the corners of the base). However, if a parallelogram with a
novel shape or orientation is provided, the standard procedure will not work and children are forced
to solve the problem by understanding the true structure of a parallelogram (i.e., the figure can be
bisected anywhere if the ends are joined).
Principles

• The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the
relationship among the elements).
• Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for learning
• Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity, closure, similarity and
simplicity.
4. • James Jerome Gibson (January 27, 1904 –
December 11, 1979), was an American
INFORMATIO psychologist, considered one of the most
important twentieth century psychologists
N PICKUP in the field of visual perception.
THEORY
Information Pickup Theory
• The theory of information pickup suggests that perception depends entirely upon information in
the “stimulus array” rather than sensations that are influenced by cognition. Gibson proposes
that the environment consists of affordances (such terrain, water, vegetation, etc.) which provide
the clues necessary for perception. Furthermore, the ambient array includes invariants such as
shadows, texture, color, convergence, symmetry and layout that determine what is perceived.
According to Gibson, perception is a direct consequence of the properties of the environment and
does not involve any form of sensory processing.
• Information pickup theory stresses that perception requires an active organism. The act of
perception depends upon an interaction between the organism and the environment. All
perceptions are made in reference to body position and functions (proprioception). Awareness of
the environment derives from how it reacts to our movements.
• Information pickup theory opposes most traditional theories of cognition that assume past
experience plays a dominant role in perceiving. It is based upon Gestalt Theories that emphasize
the significance of stimulus organization and relationships.
Application

• Information pickup theory is intended as a general theory of perception, although it has been
developed most completely for the visual system. Gibson (1979) discusses the implications of the
theory for still and motion picture research. Neisser (1976) presents a theory of cognition that is
strongly influenced by Gibson.
Example
• Much of Gibson’s ideas about perception were developed and applied
in the context of aviation training during WWII. The critical concept is
that pilots orient themselves according to characteristics of the
ground surface rather than through vestibular/kinesthetic senses. In
other words, it is the invariants of terrain and sky that determine
perception while flying, not sensory processing per se. Therefore,
training sequences and materials for pilots should always include this
kind of information.
Principles
• To facilitate perception, realistic environmental settings should be
used in instructional materials.
• Since perception is an active process, the individual should have an
unconstrained learning environment.
• Instruction should emphasize the stimulus characteristics that provide
perceptual cues.
 Piaget is an interesting character in Psychology. His
theory of learning differs from many others in some
important ways:

First, he focuses exclusively on children. Second, he

5. Piaget’s talks about development instead of learning. And
third, it’s a stage theory, not a linear progression
Theory of theory.

Cognitive Well, there are some basic ideas to get your head

Development. around and some stages to understand too. The

basic ideas are:

• Schemas: The building blocks of knowledge.

• Adaptation processes: These allow the transition from one stage
to another. He called these: Equilibrium, Assimilation and
Accommodation.
• Stages of Cognitive development: Sensorimotor; Preoperational;
Concrete Operational; Formal Operational.
• So here’s how it goes. Children develop Schemas of knowledge about the world. These
are clusters of connected ideas about things in the real world that allow the child to
respond accordingly.
• When the child has developed a working Schema that can explain what they perceive in
the world, that Schema is in a state of Equilibrium.
• When the child uses the schema to deal with a new thing or situation, that Schema is in
Assimilation and Accommodation happens when the existing Schema isn’t up to the job
of explaining what’s going on and needs to be changed.
• Once it’s changed, it returns to Equilibrium and life goes on. Learning is, therefore, a
constant cycle of Assimilation; Accommodation; Equilibrium; Assimilation and so on.
• All that goes through the 4 Stages of Cognitive Development, which are defined by age.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
1. The Sensorimotor Stage runs from birth to 2 years and the child spends their time learning
basic Schemas and Object Permanence (the idea that something still exists when you can’t see
it).
2. The Preoperational Stage runs from 2 years to 7 years and the child develops more Schemas
and the ability to think Symbolically (the idea that one thing can stand for another; words for
example, or objects). At this point, children still struggle with Theory of Mind (Empathy) and
can’t really get their head around the viewpoints of others.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage runs from 7 years to 11 years and this is the Stage when
children start to work things out in their head rather than physically in the real world. They
also develop the ability to Conserve (understand that something stays the same quantity even
if it looks different).
4. The Formal Operational Stage runs from 11 years into adulthood and this is where abstract
thought develops, as does logic and cool stuff like hypothesis testing.
• According to Piaget, the whole process is active and requires the
rediscovery and reconstructing of knowledge across the entire
process of Stages.
• Understanding the stage a child is in, informs what they should be
presented with based on what they can and cannot do at the Stage
they’re in.
• Piaget’s work on cognitivism has given rise to some brilliant work
from people like John Sweller who developed the fantastic Cognitive
Load Theory and John Flavell’s work on metacognition.
6. Vygotsky’s Theory of
Learning.
• Vygotsky takes a different approach to Piaget’s idea that
development precedes learning.
• Instead, he reckons that social learning is an integral part of
cognitive development and it is culture, not developmental
Stage that underlies cognitive development. Because of
that, he argues that learning varies across cultures rather
than being a universal process driven by the kind of
structures and processes put forward by Piaget.
• They also differ in how they view language. For Piaget,
thought drives language but for Vygotsky, language and
thought become intertwined at about 3 years and become
a sort of internal dialogue for understanding the world.
• And where do they get that from? Their social environment of course, which contains all the
cognitive/linguistic skills and tools to understand the world.
• Vygotsky talks about Elementary Mental Functions, by which he means the basic cognitive processes
of Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory.
• By using those basic tools in interactions with their sociocultural environment, children sort of
improve them using whatever their culture provides to do so. In the case of Memory, for example,
Western cultures tend towards note-taking, mind-maps or mnemonics whereas other cultures may
use different Memory tools like storytelling.
• In this way, a cultural variation of learning can be described quite nicely.
• What are crucial in this learning theory are the ideas of Scaffolding, the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) and the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
Here’s how all that works:
More Knowledgeable Other.
• The MKO can be (but doesn’t have to be) a person who literally knows more than
the child. Working collaboratively, the child and the MKO operate in the ZPD,
which is the bit of learning that the child can’t do on their own.
• As the child develops, the ZPD gets bigger because they can do more on their
own and the process of enlarging the ZPD is called Scaffolding.
Vygotsky Scaffolding
• Knowing where that scaffold should be set is massively important and
it’s the MKO’s job to do that so that the child can work independently
AND learn collaboratively.
• For Vygotsky, language is at the heart of all this because a) it’s the
primary means by which the MKO and the child communicate ideas
and b) internalizing it is enormously powerful in cementing
understanding about the world.
• That internalization of speech becomes Private Speech (the child’s
“inner voice”) and is distinct from Social Speech, which occurs
between people.
• Over time, Social Speech becomes Private Speech and Hey Presto!
That’s Learning because the child is now collaborating with
themselves!
• The bottom line here is that the richer the sociocultural environment,
the more tools will be available to the child in the ZPD and the more
Social Speech they will internalize as Private Speech. It doesn’t take a
genius to work out, therefore, that the learning environment and
interactions are everything.
• Scaffolding is also an integral part of Rosenshine’s Principles of
Instruction.
7. Bloom’s Domains of Learning.

• In 1956, American educational psychologist, Benjamin

Bloom, first proposed three domains of learning:
Cognitive
Affective
psycho-motor
• Bloom worked in collaboration with David Krathwohl
and Anne Harrow throughout the 1950s-70s on the
three domains.
 The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s
Taxonomy).
• This was the first domain to be proposed in 1956 and it focuses on the idea
that objectives that are related to cognition could be divided into
subdivisions and ranked in order of cognitive difficulty.
• These ranked subdivisions are what we commonly refer to as Bloom’s
taxonomy. The original subdivisions are as follows (knowledge is the lowest
with evaluation being the most cognitively difficult):
1. Knowledge
2. Understanding
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
• However, there was a major revision of the subdivisions
by Bloom’s original partner, David Krathwohl and his
colleague, Lorin Anderson (Anderson was a former
student of Bloom’s).
• The highlights of this revision were switching names of
the subdivisions from nouns to verbs, thus making them
easier to use when curriculum and lesson planning.
• The other main change was the order of the top two
subdivisions was reversed. The updated taxonomy is as
follows:
The Affective Domain

• The affective domain (sometimes referred to as the feeling domain) is concerned with feelings and
emotions and also divides objectives into hierarchical subcategories. It was proposed by Krathwohl and
Bloom in 1964. 
• The affective domain is not usually used when planning for mathematics and sciences as feelings and
emotion are not relevant for those subjects. However, for educators of arts and language, the inclusion of
the affective domain is imperative wherever possible. 
• The ranked domain subcategories range from “receiving” at the lower end up to “characterization” at the
top. The full ranked list is as follows:
1. Receiving. Being aware of an external stimulus (feel, sense, experience).
2. Responding. Responding to the external stimulus (satisfaction, enjoyment, contribute)
3. Valuing. Referring to the student’s belief or appropriation of worth (showing preference or respect).
4. Organization. The conceptualizing and organizing of values (examine, clarify, integrate.)
5. Characterization. The ability to practice and act on their values. (Review, conclude, judge)
The Psychomotor Domain
• The psychomotor domain refers to those objectives that are specific to reflex
actions interpretive movements and discreet physical functions. 
• A common misconception is that physical objectives that support cognitive
learning fit the psycho-motor label, for example; dissecting a heart and then
drawing it. 
• While these are physical (kinesthetic) actions, they are a vector for cognitive
learning, not psycho-motor learning.
• Psychomotor learning refers to how we use our bodies and senses to interact
with the world around us, such as learning how to move our bodies in dance or
gymnastics.
Anita Harrow classified different types of learning in the psycho-motor domain from those that are reflex to those that are
more complex and require precise control:
• Reflex movements. These movements are those that we possess from birth or appear as we go through puberty. They
are automatic, that is they do not require us to actively think about them e.g. breathing, opening and closing our pupils
or shivering when cold.
• Fundamental movements. These are those actions that are the basic movements, running, jumping, walking etc. and
commonly form part of more complex actions such as playing a sport.
• Perceptual abilities. This set of abilities features those that allow us to sense the world around us and coordinate our
movements in order to interact with our environment. They include visual, audio and tactile actions.
• Physical abilities. These abilities refer to those involved with strength, endurance, dexterity and flexibility etc.. 
• Skilled movements. Objectives set in this area are those that include movements learned for sport (twisting the body
in high diving or trampolining), dance or playing a musical instrument (placing fingers on guitar strings to produce the
correct note). It is these movements that we sometimes use the layman’s term “muscle memory”.
• Non-discursive communication. Meaning communication without writing, non-discursive communication refers to
physical actions such as facial expressions, posture and gestures.
 BLOOMS 3 DOMAINS OF LEARNING
COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE PSYCHO-MOTOR
Objectives and skills Affective objectives deal Objectives that include
that help you process with feelings, emotions, those related to motor
information. This is attitudes, appreciation skills, coordination and
where we find Blooms and preference. physical movement.
taxonomy.
 • Robert Mills Gagné was an American
educational psychologist who, in 1965
published his book “The Conditions of
8. Gagné’s Learning”. In it, he discusses the analysis of
learning objectives and how the different
Conditions of classes of objective require specific teaching
methods. 
Learning. • He called these his 5 conditions of learning, all
of which fall under the cognitive, affective
and psycho-motor domains discussed earlier.
 Gagné’s 5 Conditions
of Learning
1. Verbal information (Cognitive domain)
2. Intellectual skills (Cognitive domain)
3. Cognitive strategies (Cognitive domain)
4. Motor skills (Psycho-Motor domain)
5. Attitudes (Affective domain)
 • To achieve his five conditions of learning, Gagné believed that
learning would take place when students progress through nine
levels of learning and that any teaching session should include a
sequence of events through all nine levels. The idea was that
the nine levels of learning activate the five conditions of
learning and thus, learning will be achieved.
Gagné’s 9 1.
2.
Gain attention.
Inform students of the objective.
Levels of 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning.

Learning 4.
5.
Present the content.
Provide learning guidance.
6. Elicit performance (practice).
7. Provide feedback.
8. Assess performance.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job.
Benefits of Gagné’s Theory.
• Used in conjunction with Bloom’s taxonomy, Gagné’s nine levels of
learning provide a framework that teachers can use to plan lessons
and topics. Bloom provides the ability to set objectives that are
differentiated and Gagné gives a scaffold to build your lesson on.
 Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)
• Cognitive learning theorist, Jerome Bruner based the spiral
curriculum on his idea that “We begin with the hypothesis that any
subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child
at any stage of development”.
• In other words, he meant that even very complex topics can be
taught to young children if structured and presented in the right way.
9. Jerome • The spiral curriculum is based on three key ideas.
1. Students revisit the same topic multiple times throughout
Bruner. their school career. This reinforces the learning each time
they return to the subject.
2. The complexity of the topic increases each time a student
revisits it. This allows progression through the subject matter
as the child’s cognitive ability develops with age.
3. When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are linked with
ones they have previously learned. The student’s familiarity
with the keywords and ideas enables them to grasp the more
difficult elements of the topic in a stronger way.
Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966).
• Following the idea of the spiral curriculum, Bruner presented the idea of three
modes of representation. These modes of representation refer to the way
knowledge is stored in memory. Unlike Piaget’s age-related stages, Bruner’s
modes are loosely sequential.
• Enactive (age 0-1 years). Representation of knowledge through physical actions.
• Iconic (age 1-6 years). Visual representation of knowledge stored via visual
images.
• Symbolic (age 7+ years). The use of words and symbols to describe experiences.
10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

• Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist who was best

known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of
psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in
priority, culminating in self-actualization.
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology
comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as
hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From the bottom of the hierarchy
upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety (job
security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-
actualization.
Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied
before individuals can attend to needs higher up.
• The basic premise for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that students progress
through a set of sequential needs from physiological to self-actualization.
As they move up through the levels, they feel more comfortable in their
learning environment and have the confidence to push further.
• It’s important to note that any group of students will have learners at
different levels, some may not have the lower levels met at home so
making sure these students feel safe and secure is of the utmost
importance as they will find it very hard to move to the upper levels.
• Maslow’s theory lends itself more to building student/teacher relationships
rather than lesson or curriculum structure. You can have the best resources
and most tightly planned lessons in the world but if you don’t show
enthusiasm, passion and empathy it will be very difficult for your students
to feel their needs have been met.
Deficiency needs vs. growth needs
• This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth
needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs
(D-needs), and the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-
needs).
• Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate
people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such
needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied.
For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry
they will become.
• Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level
deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs.
However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a needs is not an “all-or-
none” phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have
given “the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent
before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69).
• When a deficit need has been 'more or less' satisfied it will go away,
and our activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next
set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient
needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even
become stronger once they have been engaged.
• Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from
a desire to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been
reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called
self-actualization.
• Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy
toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often
disrupted by a failure to meet lower-level needs. Life experiences,
including divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to
fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.
• Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-
directional manner but may move back and forth between the
different types of needs.
 THE ORIGINAL HIERARCHY OF NEEDS FIVE-STAGE MODEL

• Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve

certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others.
• Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first
thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next
level up is what motivates us, and so on.
• . Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human
survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. 
• If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function
optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important
as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
• 2. Safety needs - Once an individual’s physiological needs are
satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient. People
want to experience order, predictability and control in their lives.
These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police,
schools, business and medical care).
• For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g. employment,
social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability,
property, health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and
injury).
• 3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety
needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and
involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal
relationships motivates behavior.
• Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance,
receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a
group (family, friends, work).
• 4. Esteem needs are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy - which
Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity,
achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for
reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
• Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most
important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem
or dignity.
• 5. Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy,
and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment,
seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow (1943)
describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one
can, to become the most that one can be.
• Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For
example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal
parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically,
academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively,
in paintings, pictures, or inventions.
Maslow posited that human needs are
arranged in a hierarchy:
"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no
bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of
bread and when his belly is chronically filled?
At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than
physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn
are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so on.
This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are
organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency"
• Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a
hierarchy of needs over several decades.
• Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow proposed that the order
in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” as he may have implied in his
earlier description.
• Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external
circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for
some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the
need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede
even the most basic needs.
• Maslow also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and
noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the
basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them”
Hierarchy of needs summary
• (a) human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.
• (b) needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency in which more
basic needs must be more or less met (rather than all or none) prior
to higher needs.
• (c) the order of needs is not rigid but instead may be flexible based on
external circumstances or individual differences.
• (d) most behavior is multi-motivated, that is, simultaneously
determined by more than one basic need.
 THE EXPANDED HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage
model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s.
1. Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and
love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”
8. Transcendence needs - A person is motivated by values which transcend beyond the personal self (e.g.,
mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual experiences, service to
others, the pursuit of science, religious faith, etc.)
 Self-actualization
• Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people,
Maslow formulated a more positive account of human behavior which
focused on what goes right. He was interested in human potential, and how
we fulfill that potential.
• Psychologist Abraham Maslow stated that human motivation is based on
people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-
actualized people are those who were fulfilled and doing all they were
capable of.
• The growth of self-actualization refers to the need for personal growth and
discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is
always 'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-
actualization, a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to
them.
• As each individual is unique, the motivation for self-actualization leads
people in different directions. For some people self-actualization can be
achieved through creating works of art or literature, for others through
sport, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting.
• Maslow believed self-actualization could be measured through the
concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the
world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and
wonder.
• It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of
becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a 'happy ever after’.
Maslow offers the following description of
self-actualization:
'It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the
tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.
The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly
from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the
desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed
athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures
or in inventions'
 Characteristics of self-actualized people
• Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us
will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow estimated that only
two percent of people would reach the state of self-actualization.
• He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he
considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.
• By studying 18 people he considered to be self-actualized (including
Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein) Maslow identified 15
characteristics of a self-actualized person. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-
ACTUALIZERS
• 1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;

• 2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;

• 3. Spontaneous in thought and action;

• 4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);

• 5. Unusual sense of humor;

• 6. Able to look at life objectively;

• 7. Highly creative;
• 8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;

• 9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;

• 10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;

• 11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;

• 12. Peak experiences;

• 13. Need for privacy;

• 14. Democratic attitudes;

• 15. Strong moral/ethical standards.

 BEHAVIOR LEADING TO SELF-
ACTUALIZATION
1. Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;

2. Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;

3. Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition, authority or the majority;

4. Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being honest;

5. Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority;

6. Taking responsibility and working hard;

7. Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.
• The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to
self-actualization are shown in the list above.  Although people
achieve self-actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share
certain characteristics.  However, self-actualization is a matter of
degree, 'There are no perfect human beings' (Maslow,1970a, p. 176).
• It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-
actualized, and not only self-actualized people will display them. 
• Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-
actualization merely involves achieving one's potential. Thus,
someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-
actualize. Less than two percent of the population achieve self-
actualization.
 EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS
• Maslow's (1962) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching
and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in
the environment , Maslow adopts a holistic approach to education and learning.
• Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of
an individual and how they impact on learning.
• Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are
obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic
physiological needs.
• For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning.
Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the
classroom to progress and reach their full potential.
• Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the
classroom, and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a
low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-
esteem is strengthened.
11. Howard Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences.
• Howard Gardner is an American developmental psychologist and professor of cognition and education
at the Harvard graduate school at Harvard University. He studied under Erik Ericson and Jerome
Bruner. 
• He published “Frames of Mind” in 1983, in it, he laid out his theory of “multiple intelligences”.
• Gardner perceived intelligence as the ability to solve problems or make products that are useful in one
or more cultural settings. 
• He developed a list of criteria he would use to judge possible contenders for the title “intelligence”.
Candidates had to satisfy a range of the conditions on his list and also be able to solve genuine
problems of difficulties. Initially, Gardner named seven intelligences.
Gardner’s 7 Intelligences
• Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use language in written and spoken forms
to express oneself.
• Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve problems logically, to solve mathematical
problems and to perform scientific investigations.
• Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation, composition and performance of
musical patterns, including the ability to recognize tone, pitch and rhythm.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body movements to
solve problems.
• Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognize and use patterns in a wide or confined
space.
• Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and
intentions of other people.
• Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and
motivations.
The importance of multiple intelligence in the classroom
• Gardner suggested that the intelligences rarely operate independently and
compliment each other as students learn new skills and solve problems. He
also commented that the intelligences are amoral, meaning they can be used
for constructive or destructive purposes.
• Whilst Gardner’s theory hasn’t been hugely accepted in the field of Psychology,
it has had a strong positive response in education, especially in the US. 
• In the face of criticism that it is hard to teach things in the frame of a certain
intelligence, Gardner replied by stating that the seven intelligences give 7 ways
to teach a subject, allowing multiple strategies to be used, thus allowing all
students to make progress.
• Gardner believes that all seven intelligences are required to live life well and
education systems should include all seven not just the more academic first
two.
Naturalist Intelligence
• Since its original publication, Gardner has since added an eighth
intelligence: Naturalist intelligence. This deals with an individual’s
ability to perceive, recognize and order features from the
environment.
12. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological
Development

• Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who developed Freud’s “Psychosexual

Theory” and adapted it into a psychosocial (having both psychological
and social aspects) theory encompassing eight stages. 
• According to Erikson, we experience eight stages of development during
our life span. Within each stage, there is a dilemma that we must
resolve in order to feel a sense of competence and will allow us to
develop as a well-adjusted adult.
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
1. Trust Vs. Mistrust (Age 0 – 1.5). In this first stage, infants must learn that adults can be
trusted. If treated poorly children may grow up feeling mistrust towards people.
2. Autonomy Vs. Shame (Age 1.5 – 3). The “me do it’ stage, children start to make
decisions and show preferences of elements in their environment such as what clothes
to wear or what toy they prefer. If children are not allowed to explore these preferences
they may develop low self-esteem and shame.
3. Initiative Vs. Guilt (Age 3 – 5). This stage involves children learning to plan and achieve
goals involving others. If parents or teachers allow children to explore this and support
their choices they will develop a sense of purpose and strong self-confidence.
4. Industry Vs. Inferiority (Age 5 – 12). In this stage, children start comparing themselves
with their peers. Success at this will result in a sense of accomplishment in their school
work, social and family activities and sports.
5. Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Age 12 – 18). Students in this stage are asking
themselves “Who am I” and “What do I want to do in my life”. They will try out
multiple roles during this time to find what one “fits” best. A strong sense of identity
and an ability to defend their core beliefs in the face of other opinions would be
considered success at this stage.
6. Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Age 18 – 40). As students progress into early adulthood their
focus shifts to making and maintaining strong, intimate relationships with others.
7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Age 40 – 65). In middle adulthood, people are
concerned with contributing to society either through their work or parenthood.
Continued self-improvement for the benefit of other people figures strongly here.
8. Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (Age 65+). Those in late adulthood reflect on their lives,
feeling a sense of satisfaction or failure. Those who feel failure will often obsess with
ideas of what they “should have” or “could have” done.
Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
• Within an educational frame, Erikson’s work gives us as teachers a
framework to base our teaching on. Knowing what questions our students
are asking of themselves and the world around them allows us to plan
effectively. 
• Problems arise when our class has children at different stages in it, in this
case, we must carefully differentiate our pedagogy to allow supportive
learning for all students.
13. Kolb’s Experiential
Theory.
• David Kolb, an American education theorist proposed his
four-stage experiential learning theory in 1984. It is built on
the premise that learning is the acquisition of abstract
concepts which can then be applied to a range of scenarios.
• Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the
next stage. Learning is achieved only if all four stages have
been completed, however, a learner may travel around the
cycle multiple times, further refining their understanding of
the topic. 
• No one stage is an effective learning strategy on its own, for
example, if the reflective observation stage is skipped, the
learner could continue to make the same mistakes.
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle.
 “LEARNING IS THE PROCESS WHEREBY KNOWLEDGE IS
CREATED THROUGH THE TRANSFORMATION OF
EXPERIENCE”
• Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the next stage. Learning
is achieved only if all four stages have been completed, however, a learner
may travel around the cycle multiple times, further refining their
understanding of the topic. 
• No one stage is an effective learning strategy on its own, for example, if the
reflective observation stage is skipped, the learner could continue to make
the same mistakes.
14. The Peter Principle.

• The Peter Principle was developed by American educational theorist

Laurence Peter and was explained in the book “The Peter Principle” that
Peter wrote with his colleague, Raymond Hull.
• Originally the book was supposed to be a satirical view on how people
are promoted in organizations, but it became popular as it actually
made a valid point.
• While ”The Peter Principle” is not strictly a learning theory, it does have
some crossover to the classroom. The Peter Principal deals with four levels
of competence. They could give a teacher planning a long-term teaching
strategy a framework to use when thinking about how students progress.
1. Unconscious Incompetence. Not knowing how to do a task without knowing you
don’t know. 
2. Conscious Incompetence. You still don’t know how to do the task but now you
know you don’t know. You are aware of a gap in your knowledge.
3. Conscious Competence. You can now do the task, but it requires a lot of
concentration.
4. Unconscious Competence. You can perform the task with ease. This is achieved
by repeated practice.
• This would eventually translate to a student’s learning journey.
 • In 1985 Dugan Laird stated in his book “Approaches to
Training and Development” that learning occurs when the
senses are stimulated.

15. Laird’s • He quoted research that found that 75% of an adult’s

knowledge was obtained by seeing. 13% was through
Sensory hearing, the remaining 12% was learned through touch,
smell and taste combined.
Theory. • Based on this research, providing visual prompts for
students will enhance their learning. However, making your
lessons a multi-sensual experience will enhance learning
even further. It’s worth considering this when planning
your lessons.
 Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist
best-known for his influence on behaviorism.

16. Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is based on Thorndike’s “Law of
Skinner’s Effect” (1898) in which it is proposed that behaviors that
are followed by positive responses are likely to be
Behaviorist repeated and those that are followed by negative
responses, not repeated.
Theory. • Skinner refined the Law of Effect by introducing
“reinforcement” into the descriptions. Using Skinner’s
new description, we end up with behaviors that are
reinforced, are repeated (strengthened), and those not
reinforced tend to dissipate (are weakened).
Positive Reinforcement
• From a classroom management perspective, positive reinforcement is
an essential strategy for teaching students how to act and conduct
themselves. 
• Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise) should be given for behaviors that are
desirable, for example, verbally answering questions in class. Initially, this
should be done for all answers given, regardless of whether they are
correct. This will build a culture of answering questions.
• As the behavior in question becomes commonplace, the teacher should
then both reduce the frequency of the reinforcement and, as in our
above example, only give it for correct answers.
• Ultimately the teacher will reduce the frequency of the positive
reinforcement to only those responses of the highest caliber. This will
create a culture of desired excellence in the students.
17. Rogers’ Humanist Theory
• Developed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers in the 1980s, facilitative learning is a humanistic approach to
learning. 
Humanism
• Humanism was developed to contrast cognitivism and behaviorism. Both Rogers and Maslow (see above) based their
work in humanism. The key perspectives of humanism are as follows:
 People have a natural desire to learn in order to achieve self-actualization (see Maslow’s theory above).
 It is not the outcome that is the most important part of education, it is the process of learning itself.
 The students themselves should be in control of their learning and it should be achieved through observing
and exploring.
 The teacher should be an encouraging role model, motivating, guiding and supporting students on their own
personal journey.
Facilitative Learning
• Rogers’ views the teacher as a facilitator to learning rather than just a
conveyor of knowledge. The success of the teacher is in their ability to build
positive relationships with students.
• Roger’s proposed three attitudinal core characteristics that a teacher should
possess for facilitative learning to be successful:
Realness. The teacher should be themselves and use their own personality when
teaching. Being “real” with students breeds an ethos of trust between students and a
teacher. The teacher should be able to convey their feelings rather than just being a
monotonal, monochromatic robot.
Prizing, Accepting and Trusting. A teacher should care about their students and
accept their feelings, regardless of whether they assist or detract from learning.
Through these characteristics, deeper trust and respect is built.
Empathy. Understanding the student’s perception of learning and their feelings.
• The effectiveness of facilitative learning also requires certain traits to be
present in the student. They should be motivated, aware of the facilitative
conditions they have been provided with and aware that the task they
have been given is useful, realistic and relevant.
 If all these characteristics are present then, in
the words of Rogers himself:
“LEARNING BECOMES LIFE, AND A VERY VITAL LIFE AT THAT.
THE STUDENT IS ON HIS WAY, SOMETIMES EXCITEDLY,
SOMETIMES RELUCTANTLY, TO BECOMING A LEARNING,
CHANGING BEING”.
18. Canter’s Theory of
Assertive Discipline.
• Assertive discipline is a structured system to
enable teachers to manage their classrooms. It
focuses on the teacher developing a
positive behavior management strategy rather
than being dictatorial.
• Canter’s proposition is that the teacher has the
right to decide what is best for their students and
that no student should prevent any other from
learning.
• The teacher should very clear boundaries as to
how they expect their students to behave and
work, the students should know what these
boundaries are, and any deviation should be met
with an assertive action from the teacher.
• This form of discipline may sound tough. However, if the teacher gives
a firm, clear instruction and those instructions are met, they should
be followed by positive reinforcement (see Skinner). Any deviation
from the instruction should be met with negative consequences that
the students have prior knowledge of.
• The behavior management guru, Bill Rogers, bases his strategies on
the assertive teacher model, which should work incredibly well.
19. Dreikur’s Classroom Management
Theory.

• Rudolf Dreikur proposed the theory that mutual respect should be the
basis for discipline and that this mutual respect motivates learners to
display positive behaviors. 
• He believed students have an innate desire to feel like an accepted
member of a group and to feel like they have value and confidence to
contribute to that group. Dreikur called this desire to belong, the
“genuine goal of social behavior”.
• If students are unable to achieve this goal, they start a series of “goals of
misbehavior”. The resulting misbehavior is a misguided attempt at
gaining the sense of belonging they are missing.
Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehavior.
1. Gain attention.
2. Gain power and control.
3. Gain revenge.
4. Display feelings of inadequacy.

• If a student fails to gain social status by gaining attention, they move

on to trying to gain power and control, failure at each successive level
ultimately ends with feelings of inadequacy.
How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehavior 
• Gain Attention. Ignore the attention-seeking and use positive reinforcement when positive
behavior is shown. Distract the student by offering alternate actions or choices e.g. “Please
could you hand out the books”.
• Gain Power and Control. Focus on all the good behavior in the class, while ignoring the
attempt to gain power, on no account should you engage in a battle for power. Bill Rogers,
the behavior expert, calls this the black dot, white square approach.
• Gain Revenge. Remember that the student is trying to gain a sense of belonging and this
revenge-seeking is a masked attempt to gain it. Away from other students, let the student
know that you care about them and their education, that despite their actions you want the
best for them.
• Display Feelings of Inadequacy. At this stage, the student has given up on themselves. This
stage will manifest in the form of “not doing” (not doing homework, not participating etc..).
Students at this stage should be shown how to recognize small successes and achievements.
Showing an interest in them and their work will always help slowly bring a student out of
this stage.
20. Purposive Behaviorism
• Purposive behaviorism is a branch of psychology that was introduced by Edward Chance
Tolman. It combines the objective study of behavior while also considering the purpose
or goal of behavior.
• Tolman thought that learning developed from knowledge about the environment and
how the organism relates to its environment.
• Tolman's goal was to identify the complex cognitive mechanisms and purposes that
guided behavior.
• His theories on learning went against the traditionally accepted stimulus-response
connections (see classical conditioning) at this time that were proposed by other
psychologists such as Edward Thorndike.
• Tolman disagreed with Watson's behaviorism, so he initiated his own behaviorism, which
became known as purposive behaviorism.
• Tolman's purposive behaviorism focused on meaningful behavior, or molar
behavior, such as kicking a ball. This focus was in contrast to simple muscle
movements aka molecular behavior such as flexing of the leg muscle.
Tolman regarded the molecular behavior as fairly removed from human
perceptual capacities for a meaningful analysis of behavior. This approach of
Tolman's was first introduced in his book, Purposive Behavior in Animals and
Men, published in 1932. To Tolman, it was obvious that all actions of
behavior are goal-oriented, including those for animals.
• The main difference between behaviorism and Tolman's purposive
behaviorism is that behavior is goal oriented.
THANK YOU
 REFERENCES
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)
• http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/geqaf/annexes/technical-notes/most-influential-theories-learning
• https://www.edapp.com/blog/learning-theories/
• https://teacherofsci.com/learning-theories-in-education/
• https://tomprof.stanford.edu/posting/1505
• https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/learning-overview/
• https://www.iedunote.com/learning-theories
• https://www.leaderinme.org/blog/learning-theories/
• http://dgwaymade.blogspot.com/2010/10/thorndikes-laws-of-learning-and-its.html
• https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html
• https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/gestalt/