Analog to Digital basics

By Fareed Ahmed Jokhio

 Analogue to digital conversion
• In the process of analogue to digital
conversion, an analogue signal is converted
into a digital signal which can then be stored
in a computer for further processing.
• Analogue signals are "real world" signals
 Analogue to digital conversion
• In order for them to be stored and
manipulated by a computer, these signals
must be converted into a discrete digital form
the computer can understand.
 Analogue to digital conversion
• Using A/D conversion and a computer to
analyze data has many advantages over older
non-computerized methods.
• Computer data is easily transported and
manipulated.
• Computer analysis of signals is far more
efficient than analysis by hand and paper.
 Analogue to digital conversion
• Most importantly, real-time analysis can be
performed - this means that signals can be
analyzed as they are acquired during the
course of an experiment
 Sampling
• Consider the signal shown in the figure.
• It is an analogue signal, since it is continuously
changing in time.
 Sampling

• Any arbitrarily given value that is within the

range of the signal can be obtained simply by
measuring electrical activity at the right point in
time.
• The object of A/D conversion is to convert this
signal into a digital representation, and this is
done by sampling the signal.
 Sampling

• A digital signal is a sampled signal, obtained by

sampling the analogue signal at discrete
points in time.
• These points are usually evenly spaced in
time, with the time between being referred to
as the sampling interval.
 Sampling

• In the figure, the sampling interval is 2.5

milliseconds, with samples being taken at the
times indicated by the red dots on the
waveform.
 Sampling

• The electronic circuit that carries out the process of

sampling the signal and A/D conversion is called an
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
• Being an electronic device, it requires an electrical
signal at its input.
• Thus the first step in the process of A/D conversion is
to convert the analogue (non-voltage) signal into an
analogue voltage signal.
 Sampling

• The device that carries out this function is called

a transducer.
• For signals which are inherently voltages such as
the electrocardiogram from the heart, the
electrooculogram from the eyes, or the
electromyogram from muscle, transduction is of
course not necessary.
 Sampling
• There are two important parameters related
to sampling:
• The sampling rate, fs, determines the number
of samples taken per second.
• Sampling precision, N, determines the
gradations for the sampling process. (In other
words, sampling precision dictates the y-axis
divisions of a graphed signal.)
Sampling
 Sampling
• The image above shows a sample rate which is too
slow for the changes in the analog signal.
• In the latter half of the signal mapping, especially,
the digital signal fails to accurately reproduce the
analog one because the analog signal experiences
rapid amplitude changes between samples.
• By doubling the sample rate, the digital signal
would begin to look much more like the original
analog one.
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• A consideration to be kept in mind during the
process of A/D conversion is the choice
of sampling rate.
• The sampling rate is the frequency expressed
in Hertz (Hz) at which the ADC samples the
input analogue signal
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• The sampling interval is the time between
successive samples: the sampling rate is thus
the inverse of the sampling interval. 
• Generally speaking, the faster the rate at
which a signal changes, the higher the
frequency content of the signal, and the
higher is the sampling rate needed to
reproduce it faithfully.
Sampling Rate and Aliasing
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• This can be appreciated from the figure, which shows
that the rapidly rising phase of the wave form is not
represented as well in the sampled waveform as is
the more slowly changing part.
• In fact, it can be proven mathematically that the
sampling rate to be used must be greater than twice
the highest frequency contained in the analogue
signal.
• This critical sampling rate is called the Nyquist
Sampling rate
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• The figure below illustrates the sampling of a
sine wave using two different sampling rates.
• The times at which A/D conversion are made are
given by the vertical lines beneath the signal,
while the red asterisks on the waveform show
the voltages that are sampled.
• The highest frequency present in this signal is the
frequency of the signal itself, since it is a simple
sine wave, and so contains only one frequency.
Sampling Rate and Aliasing
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• Note that the sampling rate in the upper
figure is about ten times higher than the
highest frequency present in the signal and so
is about five times the Nyquist rate.
• The sampled signal is thus a reasonable
approximation of the analogue signal.
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• The lower figure above shows the situation
that results when the sampling rate is reduced
to about 1.2 times the highest frequency
contained in the analogue signal.
• This sampling rate is thus lower than the
Nyquist rate, and the sampled signal (dashed
line) bears little resemblance to the analogue
signal.
 Sampling Rate and Aliasing
• Note that the frequency of the sampled signal
is much smaller than that of the analogue
signal.
• This artifactual result due to improper choice
of the sampling rate is called aliasing.
 Resolution and Quality
• Analog-to-digital converter precision is
determined by the number of bits the device
possesses.
• The number of bits, n, is directly related to the
number of sampling gradations, N, so that N =
2n .
• (Gradations can be thought of as the scale of
measured intervals with which to express
values contained in the analog signal.)
 Resolution and Quality
• For example, a 12-bit converter is capable of 4096
gradations.
• If the analog signal is within the range of 0-5 V (a
typical control signal), this range would be broken up
into 4096 intervals in order to express analog values,
with 0 V being 0 and 5 V being 4095.
• If the analog signal measures 2.4414 V at a given
sample time, the digital equivalent would be 2000.
• The entire analog signal can be mapped proportionally
using these gradations.
 Resolution and Quality
• Device precision can be defined as 1/N, with
smaller values indicating greater precision.
• For example, a 4-bit converter has a precision
1/16 that of the analog signal, while a 10-bit
one is 1/1024 as precise
Resolution and Quality