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Lecture 3
Lecture 3
of Our World
1st ed.
a. c.
n1
2 8
0
Example 2
Find the sum of measures of the ver-
tex angles of a hexagon.
Solution:
A hexagon has 6 sides, so n = 6.
The sum of the measures of the angles
is found to be:
n
1
28
0
6
1
28
0
4
1
8
0
7
2
0
Regular Polygons
Regular polygons are polygons in
which:
All sides have the same length.
All vertex angles have the same mea-
sure.
Polygons that are not regular are
called irregular polygons.
Regular Polygons, cont’d
Regular Polygons, cont’d
A regular n-gon has n angles.
All vertex angles have the same mea-
sure.
The measure of each vertex angle must
be
n2180
n
Example 3
Find the measure of any vertex angle
in a regular hexagon.
Solution:
A hexagon has 6 sides, so n = 6.
Each vertex angle in the regular
hexagon has the measure:
n
21
8
0
6
21
8
0
41
8
07
20
1
2
0
n 6 6 6
Vertex Angles, cont’d
Regular Tilings
A regular tiling is a tiling composed of reg-
ular polygonal regions in which all the
polygons are the same shape and size.
Tilings can be edge-to-edge, meaning the
polygonal regions have entire sides in com-
mon.
Tilings can be not edge-to-edge, meaning the
polygonal regions do not have entire sides in
common.
Regular Tilings, cont’d
Examples of edge-to-edge regular tilings.
Regular Tilings, cont’d
Example of a regular tiling that is not edge-to-
edge.
Regular Tilings, cont’d
a. yes
b. no
Example 6
Regular hexagons
(Regular 6-gons)
In a tiling of regu-
lar hexagons, there
are 3(120°) = 360°
at each vertex
point.
Regular Tilings, cont’d
Do any regular polygons, besides n = 3, 4,
and 6, tile the plane?
Note: Every regular tiling with n > 6 must
have:
At least three vertex angles at each point
Vertex angles measuring more than 120°
Angle measures at each vertex point that add
to 360°
Regular Tilings, cont’d
In a previous question, you determined
that a regular pentagon does not tile the
plane.
Since 3(120°) = 360°, no polygon with ver-
tex angles larger than 120° [i.e. n > 6] can
form a regular tiling.
Conclusion: The only regular tilings are
those for n = 3, n = 4, and n = 6.
Vertex Figures
Semiregular tilings
Are edge-to-edge tilings.
Use two or more regular polygonal re-
gions.
Vertex figures are the same shape and
size no matter where in the tiling they
are drawn.
Example 7
2 2 2
ab
c
Example 9
Find the length x in
the figure.
Solution: Use the
theorem.
2 2 2
y112
2 2 2
x
1
y
1
2
3
Pythagorean Theorem Converse
2 2 2
Ifa
bc
then the trian-
gle is a right
triangle.
Example 10
Show that any triangle with sides of
length 3, 4 and 5 is a right triangle.
Solution: The longest side must be the
hypotenuse. Let a = 3, b = 4, and c = 5.
We find: 2 2 2
3 4 5 ?
9 16 25 ?
25 25
2.1 Initial Problem Solution
The tiling consists of
squares and regular oc-
tagons.
The vertex angle mea-
sures add up to 90° +
2(135°) = 360°.
This is an example of
one of the eight possible
semiregular tilings.
Section 2.2
Symmetry, Rigid Motions,
and Escher Patterns
Goals
• Study symmetries
One-dimensional patterns
Two-dimensional patterns
• Study rigid motions
• Study Escher patterns
Symmetry
We say a figure has symmetry if it can be
moved in such a way that the resulting fig-
ure looks identical to the original figure.
Types of symmetry that will be studied
here are:
• Reflection symmetry
• Rotation symmetry
• Translation symmetry
Strip Patterns
An example of a strip pattern, also
called a one-dimensional pattern, is
shown below.
Strip Patterns, cont’d
This strip pattern has vertical reflection
symmetry because the pattern looks the
same when it is reflected across a vertical
line.
• The dashed line is called a line of symmetry.
Strip Patterns, cont’d
This strip pattern has horizontal re-
flection symmetry because the pat-
tern looks the same when it is re-
flected across a horizontal line.
Strip Patterns, cont’d
This strip pattern has rotation symmetry because
the pattern looks the same when it is rotated 180°
about a given point.
• The point around which the pattern is turned is called the
center of rotation.
• Note that the degree of rotation must be less than 360°.
Strip Patterns, cont’d
This strip pattern has translation symme-
try because the pattern looks the same
when it is translated a certain amount to
the right.
• The pattern is understood to extend indefi-
nitely to the left and right.
Example 1
Describe the symmetries of the pattern.
Solution cont’d:
• Repeat this process
for each vertex.
• Connect the three
image points to form
the new triangle.
Glide Reflection
A glide reflection is the result of a reflec-
tion followed by a translation.
• The line of reflection must not be perpendicular to the
translation vector.
• The line of reflection is usually parallel to the transla-
tion vector.
Example 5
A strip pattern of footprints can
be created using a glide reflec-
tion.
Crystallographic Classification
There are
only seven
basic one-
dimensional
repeated
patterns.
Example 6
Use the crystallographic system to de-
scribe the strip pattern.
a. p112
b. pmm2
c. p1m1
d. p111
Escher Patterns
a. A1 = 1, A3 = 5, A9 = 15
b. A1 = 1, A3 = 3, A9 = 17
c. A1 = 1, A3 = 5, A9 = 17
d. A1 = 1, A3 = 5, A9 = 16
Fibonacci Sequence
The famous Fibonacci sequence is the
result of a question posed by Leonardo de
Fibonacci, a mathematician during the
Middle Ages.
• If you begin with one pair of rabbits on the first
day of the year, how many pairs of rabbits will
you have on the first day of the next year?
It is assumed that each pair of rabbits produces a
new pair every month and each new pair begins to
produce two months after birth.
Fibonacci Sequence, cont’d
The solution to this question is shown in the ta-
ble below.
The sequence that appears three times in the
table, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, … is called the Fi-
bonacci sequence.
Fibonacci Sequence, cont’d
The Fibonacci sequence is the sequence
of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
• The Fibonacci sequence is found many
places in nature.
• Any number in the sequence is called a Fi-
bonacci number.
• The sequence is usually written
f1, f2, f3, …, fn, …
Recursion
Recursion, in a sequence, indicates that
each number in the sequence is found us-
ing previous numbers in the sequence.
Some sequences, such as the Fibonacci
sequence, are generated by a recursion
rule along with starting values for the first
two, or more, numbers in the sequence.
Question:
A recursive sequence uses the rule
An =4An-1 – An-2, with starting values of
A1 = 2, A2 =7.
a. A4 = 45 c. A4 = 67
b. A4 = 26 d. A4 = 30
Fibonacci Sequence, cont’d
For the Fibonacci sequence, the starting values
are f1 = 1 and f2 = 1.
The recursion rule for the Fibonacci sequence
is:
f
nf
n
1f
n2
Example: The
branch at right has
a phyllotactic ratio
of 3/8.
Both 3 and 8 are
Fibonacci numbers.
Fibonacci Numbers In Nature, cont’d
1 5
2
The golden ratio has been used in
mathematics, art, and architecture for
more than 2000 years.
Golden Rectangles
1) Start with a
square, WXYZ,
that measures
one unit on each
side.
2) Label the mid-
point of side WX
as point M.
Creating a Golden Rectangle, cont’d
3) Draw an arc
centered at M
with radius MY.
4) Label the point
P as shown.
Creating a Golden Rectangle, cont’d
a
11
12
The second term
is
1 13
a
21
1
a
1 22
Initial Problem Solution, cont’d
The third term is
1 1 5
a
3
1
1
a 3 3
2
2
The fourth term is
1 1 8
a
4
1
1
a 5 5
3
3
Initial Problem Solution, cont’d
The fractions in this sequence are
2, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, …
This is recognized to be the same as
the ratios of consecutive pairs of Fi-
bonacci numbers.
The numbers in this sequence of
fractions get closer and closer to φ.