FLOWER LECTURE TWELVE

MORPHOLOGY THE ANATOMY OF

FLOWERS AND THEIR ROLE
IN REPRODUCTION, AS
WELL AS THE
DEVELOPMENT OF FLORAL
STRUCTURES
 SECTION ONE
FLOWER STRUCTURE
 FLOWERING PLANTS

By far the largest group,

flowering plants belong to
the phylum Anthophyta, and
are known as “angiosperms”.
Plants within this group
share characteristics of
having seeds encased in
an ovary – something
that differentiates them
from gymnosperms
which have
exposed/naked seeds.
 A COMPLICATED AND
ADAPTABLE STRUCTURE
The variable phylum of Anthophyta is full of variety, and it is uncommon to get a
flower that cleanly displays all its features in stereotypical fashion.
 FLOWER PARTS

Anther Stigma Style

Filament Ovary

Petal
Sepal
Ovule
Receptacle

Adapted from http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/flower.htm on 04/12/2020

 FOUR WHORLS
Most flowers are made up of four whorls; calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Calyx = sepals (non-productive)
Corolla = petals (non-productive)
Androecium = male parts (reproductive)
Gynoecium = female parts (reproductive)

• The calyx and corolla are often collectively called the “perianth”.
• If the petals and sepals cannot visually be differentiated, they’re collectively
referred to as “tepals”.
MALE VS. FEMALE
 STAMEN
Recall the following:
♂ Androecium (2n) ► Anther (2n) ► Microsporangium (2n) ►
Microgametophyte/Pollen Grain (n) ► Sperm (n) ♂
The anther is responsible for the production of pollen, which is the male
gametophyte.
Anthers are perched atop long slender tubes known as filaments. These filaments
provide nutrients to the anther and elevate it, allowing for easier pollination.
Together, the anther and filament form a stamen.
 ANDROECIUM
All stamens in the flower are collectively referred to as the “house of man” a.k.a.
“androecium”.

Androecium
 CARPEL
Recall the following:
♀ Gynoecium (2n) ►Ovary (2n) ►Ovule (2n) ► Megasporangium (2n)
► Megagametophyte/Embryo Sac (n) ► Egg (n) ♀
The ovary contains ovules, inside of which is the egg.
Stigmas are the zone which initially traps pollen grains, excreting lipids or
sucrose etc. to allow germination. The style is the passage down which the pollen
tube descends, delivering the sperm to the egg.
Together, the ovary, stigma and style form a carpel.
 CARPEL OR PISTIL?
The term pistil is used for a structure formed from the fusion of multiple carpels.
This is extremely common in flowers, so do not be misled into thinking there is
one carpel present – it is more likely to be a fusion of carpels into a pistil.
A flower may then have
one or more pistils,
representing separate
fusions of carpels.

Image retrieved on 25/02/2020 from https://science.csu.edu.au/herbarium/gynoecium/carpel/carpel-number/fused-carpels

 Carpel Number
Apocarpous – more than one free carpel e.g. roses
Monocarpous – a single carpel e.g. peaches
Syncarpous – fused carpels eg. Tomatoes

Hence a syncarpous flower will have a pistil(s).

Retrieved on 02/03/2020 from http://www.floranordica.org/info/termlistfiler/eng-eng.html

 GYNOECIUM
All carpels in the flower (whether fused into pistils or not) are collectively referred
to as the “house of woman” a.k.a. “gynoecium”.

Gynoecium
 OVARY POSITIONING
• The ovary is located above (superior) or below (inferior) the base of the perianth.
• Flowers with inferior ovaries are classified as hypogynous.
• In flowers with superior ovaries, the presence or absence of a hypanthium (an extension
of the receptacle), is used to classify flowers as perigynous and epigynous.

Retrieved on 26/01/2021 from https://courses.botany.wisc.edu/botany_401/lecture/04XOvaryPos.html

 COMPLETE VS. INCOMPLETE

A FLOWER IS COMPLETE IF IT HAS ALL OF THE CLASSIC PARTS DISCUSSED ABOVE

(INCLUDING NON-REPRODUCTIVE WHORLS), AND INCOMPLETE IF IT LACKS ONE
OR MORE.
FOR EXAMPLE, A FLOWER THAT HAS OVER TIME EVOLVED TO THE POINT OF
HAVING LOST SEPALS, IS CONSIDERED AN INCOMPLETE FLOWER.
 PERFECT VS. IMPERFECT

TO PUT IT SUCCINCTLY; A FLOWER IS CONSIDERED PERFECT IF IT HAS ALL ITS

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. A FLOWER LACKING A STAMEN OR CARPEL IS HENCE
IMPERFECT AS CANNOT SEXUALLY REPRODUCE WITHOUT OTHER FLOWERS’
INVOLVEMENT.

NOTE: AN INCOMPLETE FLOWER CAN HENCE STILL BE CONSIDERED PERFECT IF IT

HAS BOTH STAMENS AND CARPELS.
 PAPAYA FLOWERS
Example: papaya flowers are “unisexual” so each individual flower is either male or female and
always lacking the counterpart organ. It’s considered both incomplete AND imperfect.
 RICE FLOWERS
Example: rice flowers have lost both petals and sepals yet maintained all reproductive organs, so
are bisexual. The flowers are considered incomplete, YET STILL perfect.
 GENDER TERMINOLOGY

• A PLANT WITH BISEXUAL FLOWERS: MONOCLINOUS

• A PLANT WITH UNISEXUAL FLOWERS, ONLY ONE GENDER PRESENT ON PLANT: MONOECIOUS
• MALE FLOWERS ONLY PLANT: ANDROECIOUS
• FEMALE FLOWERS ONLY PLANT: GYNOECIOUS

• A PLANT WITH UNISEXUAL FLOWERS, BUT BOTH MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS ON THE SAME
PLANT: DIOECIOUS

• BISEXUAL FLOWERS: HERMAPHRODITE FLOWERS

• FEMALE FLOWERS: CARPELLATE/PISTILLATE FLOWERS
• MALE FLOWERS: STAMINATE FLOWERS
SINGLE, SIMPLE FLOWERS

ONE SINGLE FLOWER

 INFLORESCENCES
Groups of flowers, either as a collection of blooms or appearing to be one flower.
SIMPLE INFLORESCENCES
IN A SIMPLE INFLORESCENCE, ONLY ONE TYPE OF FLOWER IS PRESENT.

LOOKING AT THE ABOVE, WE CAN SEE AN UMBREL SHAPED

INFLORESCENCE MADE UP OF MANY SMALL FLOWERS, EACH
IDENTICAL
COMPOSITE INFLORESCENCES
IN A COMPOSITE INFLORESCENCE, MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF FLOWER IS
PRESENT.

Ray
Disk

LOOKING AT THE ABOVE, WE CAN SEE A CAPITULUM SHAPED INFLORESCENCE

MADE UP OF DISK AND RAY FLOWERS
 CYMOSE VS. RACEMOSE
(DETERMINATE VS. INDETERMINATE)

CYMOSE/DETERMINATE RACEMOSE/INDETERMINATE
• INFLORESCENCE HAS A • INFLORESCENCE HAS NO
TERMINAL FLOWER TERMINAL FLOWER
• AXIS HAS LIMITED GROWTH • AXIS HAS UNLIMITED
POTENTIAL GROWTH POTENTIAL
INFLORESCENCE FORMATION EXAMPLES

Retrieved on 02/03/2020 from http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/vascular/inflotyp.html

 THE BASE UPON WHICH
IT ALL STANDS
The flower itself (the four whorls combined) sit upon a receptacle, which is
attached to a stalk.
The stalk will be either a pedicel or a peduncle.

PEDIC
EL

PEDUNC
LE
 PEDICEL OR PEDUNCLE?
A single, simple flower will be attached to a peduncle.
Flowers that are present in inflorescences often have multiple branching coming
from the peduncle – these branching stems are called pedicels.
Flowers without stalks (that are directly attached to the stem) are referred to as
sessile.
This is a single, simple flower is
perfect as it has all sexual organs, but Stamen
incomplete due to the lack of sepals. Anther

It comes from a self-pollinating Filament

monoclinous plant, and the flowers Peduncle
themselves are hermaphrodites.
Petal
The flowers are hypogynous as they
have superior ovaries and no Unfused/free
hypanthium. carpels made of
Receptacle
stigma, style and
ovary

Design a flower and describe it

using the terms learnt so far – do
try to make it significantly better
than this one!
 ADDITIONAL PARTS
Some inflorescences (including grapevines) also have a rachis – the section of
stem between peduncles are pedicels.

Retrieved on 02/03/2020 from http://www.floranordica.org/info/termlistfiler/eng-eng.html

 INFLORESCENCE OF GRAPEVINES

https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C1152&title=Vine
yard%20Canopy%20Management:%20Shoot%20Thinning
 GRAPEVINE
INFLORESCENCE
STRUCTURE

• Many flowers are present within one

inflorescence.
• Terminal flower present, as is a
cymose/determinate inflorescence.
• Each flower is held on a pedicel, with
the branches between pedicels the
rachis.
• The entire inflorescence is attached to
the shoot by the peduncle.
 MONOCOT OR DICOT?
• THE ONLY REAL DISTINGUISHER AT FLOWER LEVEL IS THAT MONOCOTS HAVE
FLOWER PARTS IN SETS OF THREE, WHILE DICOTS ARE IN SETS OF FOUR-FIVE.
• E.G. A FLOWER WITH SIX PETALS = MONOCOT
• E.G. A FLOWER WITH EIGHT STAMEN = DICOT
 SECTION TWO
FLOWERING PROCESS
 ANTHESIS
ANTHESIS IS THE FLOWERING PERIOD OF A PLANT.

• DIURNAL - FLOWERS ARE OPEN IN THE DAY ONLY

• NOCTURNAL - FLOWERS ARE OPEN IN THE NIGHT ONLY
• MATUTINAL – FLOWERS ARE OPEN IN THE MORNING TWILIGHT HOURS
ONLY
• VESPERTINE - FLOWERS ARE OPEN IN THE EVENING TWILIGHT HOURS
ONLY
 FLOWERING CYCLES
Plants that produce flowers (which then produce seed) and then die off completely
are considered annual plants. Some plants are biennial; they take two years to
flower and seed, but it’s still a once-only process.
Such one-off reproductive cycles are termed semelparity.
In opposition to single flowering, perennial plants will produce flowers (and seed)
successively over seasons/years. This kind of reproductive cycle is termed
iteroparity.
 COMPOUND BUDS
For perennial plants, it is not uncommon for floral determination to take
place a year prior to flowering, as is the case in Vitis vinifera.
In order for determination to occur, the
compound buds of the vine must form over spring
and summer. Naturally this occurs progressively
as the buds form on the shoot over the entire
growing season.
 ANLAGEN/PRIMORDIA
These compound buds then develop anlagen/primordia within them,
which are an initial aggregation of cells that will later give rise to a
specific organ/structure of the plant.
 FLORAL DETERMINATION
Anlagen/primordia differentiate
into inflorescences or tendrils,
depending on external and internal
factors such as climate and hormone concentrations.

• In cooler weather gibberellins promote tendrils

• In warmer weather cytokinins promote
inflorescences
Compound bud with anlagen/primordia
 CAN THERE BE BOTH AN
INFLORESCENCE AND A TENDRIL?

YES
 INFLORESCENCE
DEVELOPMENT
• It will not be until the next season’s budburst that the inflorescence
primordia develop individual flower buds.
• Within eight weeks of this budburst flowering will begin.
• The individual flowers on the inflorescence complete their
development within 10-15 days of appearance of the inflorescence.
• The flower is fully developed when the pollen is mature.
 CONDITIONS
AT AN OPTIMAL TEMPERATURE OF 27/22OC DAY/NIGHT, FLOWER
DEVELOPMENT CAN TAKE 7-10 DAYS TO COMPLETE.
HOWEVER, DEPENDING ON VARIETY AND WEATHER CONDITIONS,
THE PROCESS CAN TAKE LONGER, GIVING THE AVERAGE OF 10-15
DAYS.
FRUIT SET IS TYPICALLY 20-30% OF THE INFLORESCENCE, BUT THIS IS
AGAIN DEPENDENT ON ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS.
 FLOWER BUD – EXTERNAL VIEW
The flower bud has five fused petals called the calyptra (cap).

Calyptra

Abscission tissue
Receptacle

Pedicel
 FLOWER BUD – INTERNAL VIEW
• Within we see the sexual structures:
• Androecium (male)
• Anther (five per flower)
Note: anthers contain 1,000’s pollen grains
Stamen
• Filament (five per flower)

• Gynoecium (female)
• Stigma

• Style (short)
Carpel
• Ovary (superior)

• Ovule
 DEHISCENCE
• In grapevines the calyptra comes
loose from the flower, falling off as
a single unit.
• In more detail, calyptra petals don’t
separate from each other, with
abscission occurring where petals
connect to the receptacle.
• It possible for pollination to occur
during this time. http://www-plb.ucdavis.edu/labs/rost/virtual%2
0grape%20dreamweaver/Flowers%20Dehiscenc
e.htm
 FULL BLOOM
The calyptra/cap has fallen off leaving
the stamen and pistil exposed,
awaiting pollination.

http://www-plb.ucdavis.edu/labs/rost/virtual%20grape%20dr
eamweaver/Flowers%20Dehiscence.htm
 OVERVIEW
The grapevine flower is perfect, because it pollinates itself.

Figure 2.4: Stages of grape flower bloom. (1) Grape flower not yet in bloom with cap attached. (2) Flower
in early bloom with cap dehiscing. (3) Flower in complete bloom showing ovary and stamens. (4)
Pollinator and fertilization of a grape flower. -
https://www.lodigrowers.com/important-structures-features-of-grapevines/
A. The different
stages of
flowering.
B. Stages of
flowering with a
corresponding
microscopic
view of flower
cross section.
POUPIN ET AL., 2011
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT FORMATION OF
INFLORESCENCE PRIMORDIA
• TEMPERATURE
• LIGHT
• RESERVES (CARBOHYDRATES)
• WATER
• MINERAL NUTRITION
• HORMONES

GA CK
 GRAPEVINE BUD FRUITFULNESS
LOOK AT A REAL GRAPEVINE SHOOT
• Which buds are the most fruitful (bear the most fruit)?
• Why do you think so?
• How does this influence pruning decisions?
 FRUITFULNESS ALONG THE CANE
Buds developed in cooler
days early in the season –
less fruitful
Buds developed in warmer
days later in the season –
more fruitful

Days after
budburst
Days getting warmer and sunnier
 CULTIVAR SPECIFIC FRUITFULNESS ALONG
THE CANE
The buds along the cane will
vary in fruitfulness due to
weather conditions during
development.
• Generally buds 1-3 are the
least fruitful, buds 4-10 the
most fruitful.
• In cooler climates cane
pruning is favoured to achieve
maximum fruitful buds
Remember remember…
Draw the flowering process in detail and explain the
steps along the way. Upload this image to the
appropriate forum site on EITONLINE, under this
week’s content.
 FRUIT DEVELOPMENT
• After pollination of the flower, fertilisation occurs.
• This results in a zygote forming inside the flower’s ovary.
• From here fruit development begins – which is our next topic.