Jimma University

College of Social Sciences & Humanities

Department of Geography & Environmental
studies

Course Title: Research Methods

Course No: GeEs 523
 Unit 1: Introduction to Research
1.1. Sources of Human Knowledge
 What is knowledge?
 Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness, or
understanding of someone or something,
such as:
 facts(descriptive knowledge), 
 skills(procedural knowledge), or
 objects (acquaintance knowledge).
 we acquire new information (new knowledge) from
two major sources. The sources include:
 Everyday experience (non-scientific sources) &
 scientific sources(Scientific Research sources)
 1.1.1. Everyday Experience (Non-scientific
Sources)
 Every day experience or non-scientific sources
is a method of acquiring knowledge about the
world around us using techniques that do not
follow the scientific methods.
 As we live in this world and interact with our
surrounding we may be confronted with new ideas
that may have important impact on our lives.
 We get access to this new information through
our sense organs (seeing, hearing, smelling ,
touching & tasting organs) the most immediate
way of knowing something.
• Using our sense organs , we perceive colors,
sounds, textures, etc. of the world at large.
• This is what we call sensory knowledge.
• We may also use the opinion of others as
sources of knowledge.
• Knowledge we get from everyday experiences,
or non-scientific research include the following.
(a) knowledge via superstition
• Gaining knowledge via superstition means
acquiring knowledge that is based on subjective
feelings, interpreting random events as non-
random events, or believing in magical events.
• For example, you may have heard someone say
“Bad things happen in threes.”
• Where does this idea come from? As far as I
know, no study has ever documented that bad
events occur in threes, yet people frequently say
this and act as if they believe it.
• Any belief, based on fear or ignorance, that is
inconsistent with the known laws of science or
with what is considered as true and rational; esp.,
such a belief in charms, omens, the supernatural,
etc
• Common examples of superstitious beliefs in
India include:
• a black cat crossing the road symbolizes bad
luck, a crow cawing indicates that guests are
arriving, drinking milk after eating fish causes
skin diseases, seeing a mongoose symbolizes to be
very lucky, and itchy palms mean that money is
coming your way.
INTUITION
• The first method of knowing is intuition. When
we use our intuition, we are relying on our guts,
our emotions, and/or our instincts to guide us.
Rather than examining facts or using rational
thought, intuition involves believing what feels
true.
• The problem with relying on intuition is that our
intuitions can be wrong because they are driven
by cognitive and motivational biases rather than
logical reasoning or scientific evidence.
Authoritative Knowledge/Words of Experts
• Perhaps one of the most common methods of
acquiring knowledge is through authority.
• This method involves accepting new ideas because
some authority figure states that they are true.
• These authorities figures include parents, the
media, doctors, Priests and other religious
authorities, the government, and professors.
• While in an ideal world we should be able to
trust authority figures, history has taught us
otherwise and many instances of atrocities
against humanity are a consequence of people
unquestioningly following authority (e.g.,
Salem Witch Trials, Nazi War Crimes).
d) Rationalism (The a Priori knowledge )
• Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves
logical reasoning.
• With this approach, ideas are precisely stated
and logical rules are applied to arrive at a
logically sound conclusion.
• Rational ideas are often presented in the form of
a syllogism in which a conclusion is drawn from two
given or assumed propositions (premises); 
(i) Deductive reasoning - The most familiar kind of
reasoning, which is often taken as the model for
all reasoning is 'deductive reasoning'.
For example:
All humans are mortal;
I am a human;
Therefore, I am mortal.
 This conclusion is logically derived from the
major and minor premises in the syllogism.
Consider, however, the following syllogism:
 Attractive people are good;
 Almaz is attractive;
 Therefore, Almaz is good.
2. All Sinners deserve punishment.
• A‘ is a sinner.
• Therefore, “A” also deserves punishment.
• Such reasoning is called deductive
reasoning.
• All cows are green.
• She is a cow.
• Therefore, she is green.
• In this example, the argument is valid, i.e.
conclusion follows from the premises.
• But the premises are not true. Therefore,
the conclusion arrived at is also not true.
ii)Inductive Reasoning: In inductive
reasoning, the premises provide evidences
for the conclusion - but not complete
evidence.
 The conclusion is not certain but only probable
to a certain degree. For example,
• Crow 1 is black.
• Crow 2 is black.
• Crow 3 is black (and so on for 10,000 crows or
more than that)
• If we take the FGC example once again, a
person living in a culture where the practice
of female genital cutting is common and well
accepted may draw specific knowledge get hat
the practice is against the rights of females
because it is the removal of a body part
without asking the consent of the victims.
Empiricism
• Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining
knowledge through objective observation and
the experiences of your senses.
• An individual who says “I believe nothing until I
see it with my own eyes” is an empiricist.
• The empiricist gains knowledge by seeing,
hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.
• This method dates back to the age of Aristotle.
• Aristotle was an empiricist who made
observations about the world in order to know it
better.
• Plato, in contrast, preferred to theorize about
the true nature of the world without gathering
any data.
• It originates from our day-to-day practical
experiences and in turn guides our daily
interaction with our surrounding.
Mystical knowledge:
Here, it is believed that knowledge is found in a
supernatural source.
 People with this knowledge are believed to
have the power to receive and decode
supernatural messages.
• These powers and knowledge are not
accessible to ordinary people.
• Gods, prophets, fortune tellers, are
examples of mystical knowledge.
• These types of knowledge depend on
our irrational feelings by using rituals,
ceremonies, emotional loaded situation and
strange – sounding language.
• The branch of philosophy that deals with this subject is
called EPISTEMOLOGY. Epistemologists generally recognize
at least four different sources of knowledge:
• INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE takes forms such as belief, faith,
intuition, etc. It is based on feelings rather than hard, cold
"facts."
• AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE is based on information
received from people, books, a supreme being, etc. Its
strength depends on the strength of these sources.
• LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE is arrived at by reasoning from
"point A" (which is generally accepted) to "point B" (the
new knowledge).
• EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE is based on demonstrable,
objective facts (which are determined through observation
and/or experimentation).
 1.2. Science or Scientific Research as a source
of knowledge
a) What is science?
b) Why do research?
c) What types of research are there?
d) How might research findings be used?
What is science?
 To some, science refers to difficult high school or
college-level courses such as physics,
chemistry, and biology meant only for the
brightest students.
• To others, science is a skill practiced by
scientists in white coats using specialized
equipment in their laboratories.
• Etymologically, the word “science” is derived
from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge.
• Science, therefore , refers to a systematic and
organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry
that is acquired using “the scientific method”.
• Knowledge refers to  facts, information, and skills
acquired through experience or education; the
theoretical or practical understanding of a subject
 Science can be grouped into two broad categories:
natural science and social science.
• Natural science is the science of naturally occurring
objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter,
earth, celestial bodies, or the human body.
• Natural sciences can be further classified into
physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and
others.
i) Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as
physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the
science of matter), and astronomy (the science of
celestial objects).
ii) Earth sciences consist of disciplines such as geology
(the science of the earth).
iii) Life sciences include disciplines such as biology
(the science of human bodies) and botany (the
science of plants).
2. Social Sciences: In contrast, social science is the
science of people or collections of people, such
as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their
individual or collective behaviors.
• Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such
as
– psychology (the science of human behaviors),
– sociology (the science of social groups), and
– economics (the science of firms, markets, and
economies).
 The natural sciences are different from the
social sciences in several respects.
a) The natural sciences are very precise,
accurate, deterministic, and independent of
the person making the scientific
observations. For instance, a scientific
experiment in physics, such as measuring
the speed of sound through a certain media or
the refractive index of water, should always
yield the exact same results, irrespective of
the time or place of the experiment, or the
person conducting the experiment.
However, the same cannot be said for the
social sciences, which tend to be less
accurate, deterministic, or unambiguous.
• For instance, if you measure a person’s
happiness using a hypothetical instrument,
you may find that the same person is more
happy or less happy (or sad) on different days
and sometimes, at different times on the same
day.
• Furthermore, there is not a single instrument or
metric that can accurately measure a person’s
happiness.
• Hence, one instrument may calibrate a person
as being “more happy” while a second
instrument may find that the same person is
“less happy” at the same instant in time.
• In other words, there is a high degree of
measurement error in the social sciences.
• For instance, you will not find many
disagreements among natural scientists on the
speed of light or the speed of the earth around the
sun, but you will find numerous disagreements
among social scientists on how to solve a social
problem such as reduce global terrorism or
rescue an economy from a recession.
• Sciences can also be classified based on their
purpose.
• Basic sciences, also called pure sciences, are
those that explain the most basic objects and
forces, relationships between them, and laws
governing them.
Examples include: physics, mathematics, and
biology.
• Applied sciences, also called practical sciences,
are sciences that apply scientific knowledge
from basic sciences in a physical environment.
• For instance, engineering is an applied science
that applies the laws of physics and chemistry
for practical applications such as building
stronger bridges or fuel efficient combustion
engines, while
• medicine is an applied science that applies the
laws of biology for solving human ailments.
• Both basic and applied sciences are required for
human development.
• However, applied sciences cannot stand on
their own right, but instead relies on basic
sciences for its progress.
1.2.1. Scientific Knowledge
• Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized
body of laws and theories to explain a
phenomenon or behavior of interest that are
acquired using the scientific method.
• Laws are observed patterns of phenomena
or behaviors, while theories are systematic
explanations of the underlying phenomenon
or behavior.
For instance, in physics,
• the Newtonian Laws of Motion describe what
happens when:
• an object is in a state of rest or motion (Newton’s
First Law),
what force is needed to move a stationary
object or stop a moving object (Newton’s
Second Law), and
what happens when two objects collide
(Newton’s Third Law).
• Collectively, the three laws constitute the
basis of classical mechanics – a theory of
moving objects. Likewise,
• the theory of optics explains the properties of light
and how it behaves in different media,
• electromagnetic theory explains the properties of
• quantum mechanics explains the properties of
subatomic particles, and thermodynamics
explains the properties of energy and
mechanical Work.
• Similar theories are also available in social
sciences.
• The goal of scientific research is to discover
laws and postulate theories that can explain
natural or social phenomena, or in other words,
build scientific knowledge.
• We arrive at scientific laws or theories through
a process of logic and evidence.
• Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the
two, and only two, pillars upon which scientific
knowledge is based.
• In science, theories and observations are
interrelated and cannot exist without each other.
• Theories provide meaning and significance to what
we observe, and observations help validate or refine
existing theory or construct new theory.
Scientific Research
• Given that theories and observations are the two
pillars of science, scientific research operates at
two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical
level.
The theoretical level is concerned with developing
abstract concepts about a natural or social
phenomenon and relationships between those
concepts (i.e., build “theories”), while
 The empirical level is concerned with testing the
theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well
they reflect our observations of reality, with the
goal of ultimately building better theories.
Scientific research involves continually moving back
and forth between theory and observations.
 Both theory and observations are essential
components of scientific research.
 For instance, relying solely on observations for
making inferences and ignoring theory is not
considered valid scientific research.
• Depending on a researcher’s training and
interest, scientific inquiry may take one of two
possible forms:
• inductive or
• deductive.
• In inductive research, the goal of a
researcher is to infer theoretical concepts and
patterns from observed data.
• In deductive research, the goal of the researcher
is to test concepts and patterns known from
theory using new empirical data.
• Hence, inductive research is also called
theory-building research, and deductive
research is theory-testing research.
Scientific Method
• In the preceding sections, we described
science as knowledge acquired through a
scientific method.
• So what exactly is the “scientific method”?
• Scientific method refers to a standardized
set of techniques for building scientific
knowledge, such as how to make valid
observations, how to interpret results, and
how to generalize those results.
• The scientific method allows researchers to
independently and impartially test preexisting
theories and prior findings, and subject them to
open debate, modifications, or enhancements.
• The scientific method must satisfy four key
characteristics:
• Logical: Scientific inferences must be based on
logical principles of reasoning.
• Confirmable: Inferences derived must match with
observed evidence.
• Repeatable: Other scientists should be able to
independently replicate or repeat a scientific
study and obtain similar, if not identical, results.
• Scrutinizable: The procedures used and the
inferences derived must withstand critical
scrutiny (peer review) by other scientists.
• Any branch of inquiry that does not allow the
scientific method to test its basic laws or
theories cannot be called “science.”
• For instance, theology (the study of religion) is
not science because theological ideas (such as
the presence of God) cannot be tested by
independent observers using a logical,
confirmable, repeatable, and scrutinizable
ways.
• The scientific method, as applied to social
sciences, includes a variety of research
approaches, tools, and techniques, for
collecting and analyzing qualitative or
quantitative data.
• These methods include laboratory
experiments, field surveys, case research,
ethnographic research, action research, and so
forth.
• In fact, some researchers have even argued that
it is impossible to define a universal approach to
scientific investigation.
• Researchers generally agree that the scientific
method is composed of the following key
elements:
• observations,
• questions,
• hypotheses,
• Experiments/data gathering,
• analyses,
• conclusions, and replication.
 1.3. DEFINITION AND PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
1.3.1.What is research?
Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning
new facts, testing ideas, etc.
• It is the systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to generate new knowledge
and answer a certain question or solve a problem.
• In other words, research is the systematic process of
collecting and analyzing information to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
• Research is also defined as human activity based
on intellectual application in the investigation of
matter.
 The strict definition of scientific research is
performing a methodical study in order to
prove a hypothesis or answer a specific
question.
• Research must be systematic and follow a
series of steps and a rigid standard protocol.
• These rules are broadly similar but may vary
slightly between the different fields of science.
• Scientific researchs must be organized and
undergo planning, including performing
literature reviews of past research and
evaluating what questions need to be answered.
• The scientific definition of research generally
states that a variable must be manipulated;
although case studies are purely observational
science and do not always comply with this
norm.
• For a successful career in science , you must
understand the methodology behind any
research and be aware of the correct protocols.
5. What does research tell us?
Research gives us information about:
• Thoughts and opinions, attitudes , habits ,
Culture Norms , Scientific facts and medical
information
What do we do with research?
– Have it as interesting fact
– Use it to make decisions
– Use it to persuade and influence others
– Use it to affect change
1.3.2.Characteristics of Scientific Research
• We can summarize the main characteristics of
research as follows.
• Research
• is directed toward the solution of a problem,
• is based upon observable experience or
empirical evidence,
• demands accurate observation and description;
• involves gathering new data from primary
sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
• is characterized by carefully designed
procedures always applying rigorous analysis.
• However, it is sometimes somewhat random
and unsystematic;
• requires expertise;
• is characterized by patient and unhurried
activities.
• is carefully recorded and reported;
• emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles, or theories that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrences; and
• Strive to be objective and logical, applying every
possible test to validate the procedures
employed, the data collected, and the
conclusion reached.
1.3.3. Goals of Scientific Research
• the purpose of scientific research is problem
solving.
• The problem could be of an immediate or
practical value or theoretical nature.
• That is, research focuses on answering various
questions and acquiring new knowledge.
• It is the primary tool used in virtually all areas
of science to expand the frontiers of knowledge.
• In addition, by conducting research, researchers
attempt to reduce the complexity of problems,
discover the relationship between seemingly
unrelated events, and ultimately improve the
way we live.
• On the whole, across all types of science,
research is frequently used for describing a thing
or event, discovering the relationship between
phenomena, or making predictions about future
events.
• In short, research can be used for the purposes of
description, explanation, prediction, and control all of
which make important and valuable contributions in
solving practical problems and also in the expansion
of what we know and discovery of new knowledge.
• Seeking solutions to practical or theoretical problems
involves doing the following important tasks:
• Describing phenomena
• Explaining phenomena
• Predicting phenomena
• Controlling phenomena
• Comparing phenomena
1.3.3.1: Description
 Description represents efforts exerted to give
pictorial account of the phenomenon being
studied.
 It is actually the first step in research since it
provides the basis for further exploration
about the phenomenon under consideration.
 E.g. If a researcher collects data about women’s
participation in politics and reports their level
of participation based on the data collected,
then we can say that females’ participation in
politics has been described.
• In description, the researcher attempts to find
answers to the questions “what,” “who,” and
“where?”
1.3.3.2. Explanation
 In explanation, the researcher is interested in
exploring the reasons or the causes of the
occurrence of certain behavior or event.
 it involves understanding the cause – and –
effect relationship between phenomena.
 Attempts have been made to answer the
question “why?”
E.g. Why do females fail to actively participate in
politics?
1.3.3.2. Prediction
 In research, generalization is made not only to
explain the past but to predict what will
happen in the future.
 A widely based conceptual framework or
theory will be used to make prediction about
the variable of interest.
 E.g. Females’ empowerment improves their
level of participation in politics.
1.3.3.4. Control
 Researchers are also interested in influencing
or changing a particular event or condition for
different purposes .therefore, the description,
explanation , and prediction of events.
1.3.3.5. Comparison
 The researcher may ALSO interested in
comparing two or more groups on a certain
behavior.
 The purpose here is to explore whether two or
more groups are similar or different with
respect to the occurrence of certain event.
Comparison may take different forms.
 Instead of comparing groups on one behavior,
the researcher may instead compare different
behaviors in one group simply to determine
which behavior is more likely to occur in this
same group of individuals.
 E.g., Is there gender difference in terms of level
of participation in politics?
1.4. Research Method vs Research Methodology?
• Although the terms methods and methodologies
are often used synonymously, it is helpful for you
to understand that the terms convey/carry
different meanings
 A method is a particular Research technique or
way to gather evidence about a phenomenon.
• Therefore, methods are the specific research
tools we use in research projects to gain fuller
understanding of phenomena.
• That is, the range of approaches used in
research to gather data which are to be used as
a basis for inference and interpretation, for
explanation and prediction.
E.g., surveys, interviews, participant observations
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically.
In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by
a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
 It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain
indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the
median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which
are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.
"
 Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the
criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others
will not.
Methodology is also about the theory of how inquiry.
 It involves the researchers’ assumptions about the nature of
reality and the nature of knowing and knowledge.
 In other words, methodology represents “a theory and
analysis of how research does or should proceed.”
 Methodology encompasses our entire approach to research.
 Our assumptions about what we believe knowledge is are
embedded in methodological discussions and therefore have
consequences for how we design and implement research
studies.
1.5. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES/PERSPECTIVES
• Since human beings have started to record and
observe the world around them, there have been
differences in opinion on how research should be
conducted to arrive at the true knowledge of the
social world.
• All research is based on assumptions about
perceived and how the world is perceived and we
can best come to understand it.
• Of course, nobody really knows how we can best
understand the world, and philosophers have been
arguing about that very question for long.
• The major differences among different researchers is
related to the following:
Ontological questions
 Epistemological questions
Methodological questions and
 Axiology questions
1.5.1Ontology
• Ontology is the branch of philosophy dealing
with the nature of reality and truth (philosophy
concerning with the overall nature of what
things are).
• In other words it addresses issues related to the
following questions:
1. What is existence? Or what is being?
 What is the nature of existence?
When we ask deep questions about
 "what is the nature of the universe?" or "Is
there a God?" or
 "What happens to us when we die?" or
 "What principles govern the properties of
matter?" are examples of ontological
questions
In simple terms, ontology is associated with a
central question of whether social entities need
to be perceived as objective or subjective.
1.5.1a. Ontological positions
 “Is there a single objective truth/a knowable reality
affected by a consistent set of laws?
 In relation to this question , there are two different
responses .
 The first answer is there is no such thing as one
objective truth or even universal truths, but merely a
number of subjective truths.
 The other possible answer is there is one objective
truth or even universal truths;
 Hence, in relation to being or existence, there are two
possible ontological positions .
 Essentially, there are two basic ontological positions.
These are usually referred to as:
Objectivism or positivism and
subjectivism(or interpretivism or constructionism
constructivism)
1.5.1b. Objectivism/positivism
 Those who believe there is a single objective truth are
usually referred to as ‘positivists’, while there
philosophy is called Objectivism/positivism.
 Such people believe there are universal truths that are
waiting to be discovered.
 Bryman (2008) states that: “Objectivism is an
ontological position that asserts that social
phenomenon and their meanings have an existence that
is independent of social actors [i.e. those who are part
of the phenomena and/ or those studying the
phenomena].”
 Example Some people might argue that bad behavior in
schools is a reality and that all you have to do is count
the examples of agreed definitions of bad behavior (e.g.
talking out of turn; out of seat; shouting).
 You can then observe and count them and decide
whether behavior is better or worse than it used to be.
 b) Subjectivism (or interpretivism or
constructionism)
those who believe that there is no reality other than
what individuals create in their heads are known as
‘constructivists’ or ‘interpretivists’
Put simply, this position takes the view that things and
meanings don’t exist independently, rather human
beings have to construct the meanings. Ontologically, it
is the opposite position from objectivism.
Bryman (2008: 19) states:
“Constructionism is an ontological position (often also
referred to as constructivism) that asserts that social
phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors.
It implies that social phenomena and
categories are not only produced through
social interaction but that they are in a
constant state of revision.
In recent years, the term has also come to
include the notion that researchers own
accounts of the social world are constructions.
In other words, the researcher always presents
a specific version of social reality, rather than
one that can be regarded as definitive.
Knowledge is viewed as indeterminate. …”
• Example Some might argue that there is no
agreed definition of what ‘bad behavior’ in
schools means and that the perceptions and
understandings of behavior have shifted over
time.
• Thus, one teacher’s ‘difficult’ child might be
another’s ‘lively and inquiring’ child.
• The response to the question ‘What is real?’
affects the way in which knowledge is obtained.
• So, following on from the question ‘What is
real?’ is ‘How do we know anything about the
world?’
• What we perceive of as reality has an effect on
our knowledge of the world.
• Hence, each of the two different paradigms
not only has a different perception of reality,
but a different perception of knowledge about
the world.
• In other words, what we think of as real,
affects the way we gain knowledge.
1.5.2. Epistemology
 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy (and
of research) which is concerned with
knowledge and how we can come to know
things.
 Thomas (209: 87) says:
 “If ontology is the study of what there is or
exists in the social world, epistemology is the
study of how do we know about the world that
we have defined ontologically?
 Epistemologists ask questions such as:
What is knowledge and how do we know things?
Are there different kinds of knowledge?
Are there good procedures for discovering knowledge?”
Basically, there are two epistemological positions. These
are usually referred to as:
 positivism
 interpretivism
1.5.2a. Positivism
Positivism can also be referred to us Quantitative‘, or
Objectivism‘, or Scientific‘, or Experimentalist‘ or
Traditionalist.
‘is the dominant epistemological paradigm/ research
philosophy in social science from the 1930s through to
the 1960s.
its core argument being that the social world
exists externally to the researcher, and that its
properties can be measured directly through
observation and experimentation (SCIENTFIC
METHOD).
In essence, positivism argues that:
 Reality consists of what is available to the
senses – that is, what can be seen, smelt,
touched, etc.
hence, Inquiry should be based upon scientific
observation (as opposed to philosophical
speculation), and therefore on empirical inquiry.
The natural and human sciences share common logical
and methodological principles, dealing with facts
and not with values.
b/ Interpretivism/constructionism
• Interpretivism accepts that the world is constantly
changing and that meanings are shifting and contested.
• We have to accept that there is no objective, pre-
existing truth ‘out here’ waiting to be discovered;
meanings are constructed, not objective.
• It is not appropriate, therefore, to employ the methods
of the natural sciences.
• In contrast to his description of positivism (above),
Thomas (2009: 75) talks of the methods of
interpretivism thus:
• If we are interested in people and the way that
they interrelate – what they think and how
they form ideas about the world;
• how their worlds are constructed,
We have to immerse ourselves in the research
contexts in which we are interested - for
example talking to people in depth, attending
to every nuance/hint of their behavior, every
clue to the meanings that they are investing in
something. … The key is understanding.
Methodology
• If we accept that our understanding of
reality affects the way we gain knowledge of
reality, then we need to accept that this will
affect how we actually conduct research about
reality (or what we term the methodology’).
• The links between the important concepts of
ontology, epistemology and methodology are
neatly summarised by Taylor and Edgar
(1999:27):
 Chapter Two: Types of Scientific Research
Researches are classified on the basis of
different criteria.
The following are the major criteria to classify
different research types.
 Nature of the problem
 specific objectives of research,
 approaches of research,
 Designs of research,
 type of data used in research,
 Fields of study etc.
 3.2. Classification of Research by the goal
(nature of problems it tries to address)
 On the basis of the nature of the problem the
research tries to solve , two broad classifications
of research can be made. These are:
Basic/ fundamental research, and
Applied research
a) Basic Research: Basic research (also called
academic research or pure research or
fundamental research), is primarily concerned
with the advancement of fundamental
knowledge about the human world.
 It focuses on refuting or supporting theories
that explain how this world operates, what
makes things happen, why social relations are
a certain way, and why society changes.
 Basic research (also called fundamental or
pure research) has as its primary objective the
advancement of knowledge and the
theoretical understanding of the relations
among variables.
 It is basically concerned with the formulation
of a theory or a contribution to the existing
body of knowledge.
• That is, basic research is designed to add to an
organized body of scientific knowledge and does not
necessarily produce results of immediate practical
value.
The major aims of basic research include:
• Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate,
expand, or evaluate theory; and
• Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of
knowledge.
Hence, basic research may take any of the following
forms:
• Discovery: where a totally new idea or explanation
emerges from empirical research which may
revolutionize thinking on that particular topic.
• Invention- where a new technique or method
is created.
• Reflection: where an existing theory,
technique or group of ideas is re-examined
possibly in a different organizational or social
context.
• The driving force in basic research is a
researcher’s curiosity or interest in a scientific
question.
• The motivation behind is to expand human
knowledge, not to create or invent something
that has practical significance.
 How did the universe begin?
 What are protons, neutrons, and electrons
composed of?
 How was the first computer of television made?
 What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
b)Applied Research: is a research undertaken
to solve specific policy problems or help
practitioners accomplish tasks.
 Theory is less central to them than seeking a
solution on a specific problem for a limited
setting.
• modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge
for knowledge's sake.
• One might say that the goal of the applied
scientist is to improve the human condition.
• It is undertaken to solve immediate practical
problem and the goal of adding to the scientific
knowledge is secondary.
• Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in
emphasis away from purely basic research and toward
applied science.
• This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems
resulting from globalization, migration, overpopulation,
pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural
resources.
• Applied scientific research can be about finding
out the answer to a specific problem, such as ‘Is
global warming avoidable?’ or ‘Does a new type
of medicine really help the patients?’
 Practitioners use several types of applied
research.
 For example, applied researchers may
investigate ways to:
 Increase sustainable land management .
 Boost soil fertility and productivity.
 Improve soil and water conservation
 Reduce impacts of human activities on land
degradation.
II. Classification of research on the basis of specific
objectives
• According to the specific objectives they address,
researches can be classified into:
a) Descriptive Research/ Ex post facto research: it
seeks to depict what already exists in a group or
population.
 An example of this type of research would be an
opinion poll to determine which Presidential candidate
people plan to vote for in the next election.
 Descriptive studies do not seek to measure the effect
of a variable; they seek only to describe.
 It seeks to determine the answers to who, what,
when, where, and how questions.
 It aims to describe the state of affairs as it is.
 As said earlier, the goal of descriptive research
is to describe some aspect of a phenomenon,
i.e., the status of a given phenomenon.
 It can help understand a topic and lead to
causal analysis.
 Descriptive research, therefore, involves a
variety of research methods to achieve its
goal.
 The methods that come under descriptive
research are:
Survey Research
 The Case Study
Correlational Study
Comparative Study
1. Survey Research
 surveys gather data at a particular point in
time with the intention of describing the nature
of existing conditions, or identifying standards
against which existing conditions can be
compared, or determining the relationships
that exist between specific events.
It is useful in that it usually:
• gathers data on a one-shot basis and hence is economical
and efficient;
• represents a wide target population
• generates numerical data;
• provides descriptive, inferential and explanatory
information
• manipulates key factors and variables to derive
frequencies and presents material which is uncluttered by
specific contextual factors.
 Surveys can be distinguished as cross-sectional and
longitudinal.
 Longitudinal surveys can further be classified as trend
studies, cohort studies and panel studies.
II. Correlational Studies
 Correlational studies trace relationships among
two or more variables in order to gain greater
situational insight.
 We may wish to know, for example, whether
there is relationship between sex and choice of
field of study;
 whether criminal behavior is related to social
class background; or
 whether an association exists between the
number of years spent in full-time education
and subsequent annual income.
 The purpose of correlational studies is not to establish
cause-effect relationship among variables but to
determine whether the variables under study have
some kind of association or not.
 Variables being studied may have positive or negative
relationship or they may not have relationship at all.
3. observation Studies
 There are many instances where we may be interested
in a behavior that occurs in its natural environment.
 In such situation we conduct observation studies.
What is observation study?
 Observation studies, as their name implies, involve
observing and recording of behavior or trait or
attribute as it occurs in its natural settings.
 It is important to point out, however, that a correlation
—or relationship—between two things does not
necessarily mean that one thing caused the other.
 To draw a cause-and-effect conclusion, researchers
must use experimental research.
Case Studies
• Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of
a limited number of events or conditions and their
relationships.
• They are largely descriptive examinations, usually of a
small number of sites (small towns, hospitals, schools).
• Case studies can provide very engaging, rich
explorations of a project or application as it develops in
a real-world setting.
B. Explanatory Research
 When we encounter an issue that is already known and
have a description of it, we might begin to wonder why
things are the way they are.
 The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of
explanatory research.
 It is a continuation of descriptive research and builds on
exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to
identify the reasons for something that occurs.
 The researcher goes beyond merely describing the
characteristics, to analyze and explain why or how
something is happening.
 Thus, explanatory or analytical research aims to
understand phenomena by discovering and measuring
causal relations among them.
• That is, explanatory research looks for causes
and reasons.
• For example, it is one thing to describe the
crime rate in a country.
• It is quite a different thing to develop
explanations about why the crime rate is as
high as it is why some types of crime are
increasing or why the rate is higher in some
countries than in others.
• Explanatory research builds on both exploratory
and descriptive researches. It involves:
• Explaining things not just reporting. Why?
Elaborating and enriching a theory's explanation.
• Determining which of several explanations is
best.
• Determining the accuracy of the theory; test a
theory's predictions or principle.
• Providing evidence to support or refute an
explanation or prediction.
• Testing a theory's predictions or principles.
• Answering the why questions involves
developing causal explanations.
• Causal explanations argue that phenomenon Y
is affected by factor X.
• In this example, the cause or the reason is X
which is technically termed as independent
variable and the effect or the behavior is Y
which is also known as dependent variable.
There are two types of explanatory research:
• Experimental research
• Ex post facto research
• Causal explanations argue that phenomenon
Y (e.g. income level) is affected by factor X
(e.g. gender).
 Some causal explanations will be simple while
others will be more complex. For example, we
might argue that there is a direct effect of
gender on income (i.e. simple gender
discrimination).
Exploratory research
• Exploratory research is conducted when there are few
or no earlier studies to which references can be made
for information.
• It provides insights into and comprehension of an
issue or situation for more rigorous investigation later.
• Exploratory research is a type of research conducted
because a problem has not been clearly defined. Its
purpose is to gain background information and better
understand and clarify a problem.
Exploratory research helps to:
• determine the best research design,
• develop hypotheses,
• develop questions to be answered,
• understand how to measure a variable,
• determine data collection method, and
• determine selection of subjects.
• Exploratory helps save time, and resources.
• If a researcher is starting a new project, she/he
probably should start with exploration.
• Exploratory research often relies on secondary
research such as reviewing available literature and/or
data, or qualitative approaches such as informal
discussions with consumers, employees, management
or competitors, and more formal approaches through
in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies.
III. Classification of research based on
Approaches of Research
 there is a tendency to divide research into
qualitative , quantitative and mixed when
approach to research has been considered as
the criterion of classification.
 Quantitative and qualitative methods raise a
number of fundamental epistemological issues
and visions of what science is.
 Each method derives from contrasting
academic and philosophical traditions.
a) Quantitative methods are identified with the
so-called ‘‘hard science’’ disciplines, whereas
qualitative methods, with the social sciences.
Quantitative research: The emphasis of
quantitative research is on collecting and
analyzing numerical data;
it concentrates on measuring the scale, range,
frequency etc. of phenomena.
b) Qualitative research: This type of research
aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in-depth interviews and focused
group discussion for the purpose.
Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research involves studies that do not
attempt to quantify their results through statistical
summary or analysis.
• Qualitative research seeks to describe various aspects
about behavior and other factors studied in the social
sciences and humanities.
• In qualitative research data are often in the form of
descriptions, not numbers.
• But sometimes results of qualitative research are
subjected to relatively less rigorous quantitative
treatment.
• Often the goal of qualitative research is to look for
meaning.
• Qualitative research is characterized by adherence to
diverse array of orientations and strategies for
maximizing the validity of trustworthiness of study
procedures and results.
• It is thus a type of empirical enquiry that entails purposive
sampling for gathering data.
• It typically involves in-depth interviews, group
discussions, artifact studies, projective techniques, and
observations without formal measurement.
• A case study, which is an in-depth examination of one
person, is a form of qualitative research. Qualitative
research is much more time consuming, but provides more
richness to the data.
• In epistemological terms, qualitative research is identified
with phenomenological and interpretative research.
Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is the systematic and
scientific investigation of quantitative properties
and phenomena and their relationships.
• The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models,
theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural
phenomena.
• The process of measurement is central to quantitative
research because it provides the fundamental
connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of an attribute.
• proponents of such studies claim that
quantitative research is undertaken in a value
free framework.
• Quantitative researchers favor methods such as
surveys and experiments, and will attempt to
test hypotheses or statements with a view to
infer from the particular to the general.
• This approach typically concentrates on
measuring or counting and involves collecting
and analyzing numerical data and applying
statistical tests.
4.4 Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research
• we may summarize the differences between the two
approaches as follows:
1. They differ in terms of the nature of reality.
Quantitative researchers believe that there are human
characteristics and processes that constitute a form of
reality in that they occur under a wide variety of
conditions and thus can be generalized to some degree.
 On the other hand, qualitative researchers believe that
there are no human characteristics and processes from
which generalizations can emerge.
 Instead, each subject or phenomenon is different and
can only be studied holistically.
2. In quantitative research, the researcher can function
independently of the participants of the research to a major
degree, although some interaction is probably inevitable,
Whereas in qualitative research the researcher and the
research participant interact to influence one another and
are inseparably interconnected.
3. Qualitative research often does not know what it is
looking for whereas quantitative research does - designs
and measurements decisions are made prior to conducting
the research.
In qualitative research the design of the research emerges
as the research progresses.
That is, in qualitative inquiry the investigator starts with a
very tentative design and develops the design as the
inquiry progresses.
4. Qualitative researchers are often immersed in
the data and look at it more subjectively whereas
quantitative research demands objectivity.
5. Qualitative research typically employs small
samples than quantitative research.
6. The ultimate goal of research in quantitative
research is to develop a body of knowledge in the
form of generalization that will hold at least to
some degree over time and in contexts similar to
those in which the generalizations were developed.
 In Qualitative research the aim of inquiry is to
develop a body of knowledge that is unique to the
individual being studied.
7. Qualitative research describes meaning or
discovery whereas quantitative establishes
relationship or causation.
• That is, in quantitative research, given sufficient
research with valid measures, every action or
effect can be explained by a cause or
combination of causes that precede the effect in
time.
• In qualitative research all elements in the
situation are in a state of mutual simultaneous
interaction so it is impossible to distinguish
causes from effects.
8. Quantitative inquiry should be made as value-free as
possible through the use of sound research design and
objective data collection procedures.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is value-bound
because inquiries are inevitably influenced by the values
of the researcher, the choice of theory, the methodology
employed, and the values inherent in the context of the
inquiry.
9. Qualitative research uses unstructured data collection
whereas quantitative research uses structured data
collection methods.
 In qualitative research, humans are the primary data-
gathering instrument.
 Non-human instruments – measurement instruments are
the data gathering tools in quantitative research.
 IV. Classification of research by Research
Design
 Although there are endless ways of classifying
research designs, they all usually fall into one
of three general categories:
a) Experimental
b) qausi-experimental and
c) Non-experimental
Experimental Research: In its simplest form,
experimental research involves comparing two
groups on one outcome measure to test some
hypothesis regarding causation.
• For example, if a researcher is interested in the
effects of a new medication on headaches, the
researcher would randomly divide a group of
people with headaches into two groups.
• One of the groups, the experimental group,
would receive the new medication being tested.
The other group, the control group, would
receive a placebo medication (i.e., a medication
containing a harmless substance, such as sugar,
that has no physiological effects).
• Besides receiving the different medications, the
groups would be treated exactly the same so
that the research could isolate the effects of the
medications.
• After receiving the medications, both groups
would be compared to see whether people in
the experimental group had fewer headaches
than people in the control group.
• if people in the experimental group had fewer
headaches than people in the control group, the
researcher could conclude that the new
medication reduces headaches.
• Quasi-experiments are often used precisely
because such random allocation is not possible or
practical.
• Typically, the experimental group will be decided
by which settings (e.g. schools, classrooms,
factories) have volunteered or been selected to
be part of the intervention.
• Therefore, rather than randomly allocating, we will
have to choose a control group that is as similar to
the experimental group as possible.
V. Classification of research by Data sources
• Depending on the type of data generated and
used, research can be classified as:
a)Primary research (also called field research):
involves the collection of data that does not
already exist.
b) Secondary research (also known as desk
research): involves the summary, collation
and/or synthesis of existing data rather than
generating primary data.
VI. Classification of research based On time
• From the points of view of time; we can divide research
into:
a) Cross sectional survey: a research is confined to a
single time-period.
b) Longitudinal survey research: the research is
carried on over several time-periods .
VII) Classification based on mode of generalization:
 inductive research moves from particular situations
to make or infer broad general ideas/theories.
 Deductive research moves from general ideas/theories
to specific particular & situations: the particular is
deduced from the general, e.g. broad theories.
VII. Classification of Research by fields of study
• Research can be classified into the following on the basis of
fields of study. These are:
• Natural science research
• social science research,
• educational research,
• behavioral science rese
• Health science research, etc.
• Other classifications:
• All other types of research are variations of one or more of
the above stated approaches, based on either the
purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done,
or on the basis of some other similar factor.
 Depending upon the environment in which
it is to be carried out, research can be
classified into:
 field-setting research or
laboratory setting (or simulation)
research
 Chapter Two:
2.1. The research processes
 Before embarking on the details of research
methodology and techniques, it seems
appropriate to present a brief overview of the
research process.
 Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps.
 One should remember that the various steps
involved in a research process are not mutually
exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct.
• They do not necessarily follow each other in any
specific order and the researcher has to be constantly
anticipating at each step in the research process the
requirements of the subsequent steps.
• However, the following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the
research process:
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis/formulating research
questions;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of
the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
2.1.1. Formulating the research problem:
• At the very outset the researcher must single out
the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.
• What is a research problem :A research problem,
in general, refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain
a solution for the same.
• Initially the problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating
to the problem be resolved.
• Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has
to be considered before a working formulation
of the problem can be set up.
• The formulation of a general topic into a specific
research problem, thus, constitutes the first step
in a scientific enquiry.
• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating
the research problem, viz., understanding the
problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same
into meaningful terms from an analytical point
of view.
• The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss
it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some
expertise in the matter.
• The researcher must at the same time examine all
available literature to get himself acquainted with the
selected problem. He may review two types of literature
—the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and
theories, and the empirical literature consisting of
studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed.
• The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge
as to what data and other materials are available for
operational purposes which will enable the researcher
to specify his own research problem in a meaningful
context.
2.1.2. Extensive literature survey: Once the
problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down. It is compulsory for a
research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D.
degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit
it to the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval.
At this juncture the researcher should
undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose,
the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to.
Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. In this
process, it should be remembered that one
source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if
any, which are similar to the study in hand
should be carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to the
researcher at this stage.
2.1.3.Development of working hypotheses:
• After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
• As such the manner in which research
hypotheses are developed is particularly
important since they provide the focal point for
research.
• They also affect the manner in which tests must
be conducted in the analysis of data and
indirectly the quality of data which is required
for the analysis.
• In most types of research, the development of
working hypothesis plays an important role.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited
to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to
guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track.
• It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention
on the more important facets of the problem.
• It also indicates the type of data required and
the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
• How does one go about developing working
hypotheses?
The answer is by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available,
concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the
studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves
original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure
greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
• Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori
thinking about the subject, examination of the available
data and material including related studies and the
counsel of experts and interested parties.
• Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in
precise and clearly defined terms.
• It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may
encounter a problem where we do not need working
hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or
formulative researches which do not aim at testing the
hypothesis.
• But as a general rule, specification of working
hypotheses in another basic step of the research process
in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The
research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms, the researcher will be required
to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to
state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted.
The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information.
In other words, the function of research design
is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money.
 But how all these can be achieved depends
mainly on the research purpose.
 Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii)
Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation.
 There are several research designs, such as,
experimental and non experimental designs.
 Experimental designs can be either informal
designs (such as before-and-after without
control, after-only with control, before-and-
after with control) or formal designs (such
as completely randomized design,
randomized block design, Latin square
design, simple and complex factorial designs),
out of which the researcher must select one for
his own project.
 The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
a) the means of obtaining the information;
b) the availability and skills of the researcher and
his staff (if any);
c) explanation of the way in which selected means of
obtaining information will be organized and the
reasoning leading to the selection;
d) the time available for research; and
e) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under
consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.
 A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
 It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
items are covered no element of chance is left and
highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may
not be true.
• Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry
will get larger and larger as the number of
observations increases.
• The researcher must decide the way of selecting a
sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design.
• In other words, a sample design is a definite
plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
• Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200
drugstores in a certain way constitutes a
sample design. Samples can be either
probability samples or non-probability
samples.
• With probability samples each element has a
known probability of being included in the
sample but the non-probability samples do not
allow the researcher to determine this
• Probability samples are those based on simple
random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas non-probability samples are those
based on convenience sampling, judgement
sampling and quota sampling techniques.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real
life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to
collect data that are appropriate.
 Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey, while secondary data
collected from published &unpublished sources.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate
data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher.
7) Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a
very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines,
the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable.
8) Analysis of Data: After the data have been
collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them.
• The analysis of data requires a number of
closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application
of these categories to raw data through
coding, editing tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences.
• Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as
stated above, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated
earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or
they happen to be contrary?
 Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If
the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations are established on the basis of
data.
10)Generalizations and interpretation: If a
hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.
11) Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally,
the researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him. Writing of report must be done with
great care. The layout of the report should be as
follows:
a) the preliminary pages;
b) the main text, and
c) The end matter.
 In its preliminary pages the report should carry title
and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword.
 Then there should be a table of contents followed by a
list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given
in the report
The main text of the report should have the following
parts:
a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of
the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations
should as well be stated in this part.
b) Summary of findings: After introduction, there
would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the
findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
c) Main report: The main body of the report should be
presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.
• Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text,
researcher should again put down the results
of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is
the final summing up. The end matter- contains
appendices, bibliography and reference list.
Defining the Research Problem
 In research process, the first and foremost step
happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem.*
 A researcher must find the problem and
formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to
research.
 Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine
all the symptoms (presented to him or observed
by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly.
 To define a problem correctly, a researcher must
know: what a problem is?
• A research problem, in general, refers to some
difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
SELECTING THE topic
• The research problem undertaken for study must
be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one,
although it may not appear to be so.
• Help may be taken from a research guide in this
connection.
• Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his
own salvation for research problems cannot be
borrowed.
• The following points need to be considered by a
researcher when selecting a research problem or a
topic for research:
a) A Research Problem which is overdone should
not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task
to throw any new light in such a case.
b) Controversial topics should not become the choice
of an average researcher.
c) Too narrow or too vague topics should be avoided.
d) Topics to be selected for research should be
familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research will be within
one‘s reach.
The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the
training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor
are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem.
In other words, before the final selection of a problem is
done, a researcher must ask himself the following
questions:
a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background
to carry out the research?
b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from
those who must participate in research as subjects?
• If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative,
one may become sure so far as the practicability of the
study is concerned.
2.1.2. Source of research Problems
• Research problems emanate from any one of the
following sources:
• Interest: First and foremost, researchers typically
choose research topics that are of interest to them.
• Practical Societal problems: societal problems
we encounter on daily basis
• Previous Research: Researchers may also
choose research problems based on the results
of prior research,
• Existing theory: Theories often serve as a good
source for research ideas. We develop research
idea from existing theories.
•The predictions suggested by theories can
often be transformed into testable hypotheses
For example; a researcher may have a theory
regarding the development of depression
among elderly males.
•A researcher may develop another hypothetical
theory by saying―elderly males become
depressed due to their reduced ability to engage
in enjoyable physical activities.
•Discussions with knowledgeable people:
discussions we make with university professors is
helpful.
2.1.3. Criteria for prioritizing problems for research
• Each problem that is proposed for research has to be
judged according to certain guidelines or criteria.
• There may be several ideas to choose from.
• Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed
topic must be compared with all other options.
• The selection and analysis of the problem for research
should involve those who are responsible for the issue
under investigation , for example, land resource
development officials.
• This would include managers in the land resource
managers , conservation workers, and community
leaders, as well as researchers.
 The criteria includes:
1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a
priority problem: Questions to be asked include:
• How large or widespread is the problem?
• Who is affected?
• How severe is the problem?
• Scales for rating research topics Relevance
• 1 = Not relevant
• 2 = Relevant
• 3 = very relevant
2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether
the topic has been researched.
• If the topic has been researched, the results
should be reviewed to explore whether major
questions that deserve further investigation
remain unanswered. If not, another topic
should be chosen.
3. Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the
problem and the resources you will require to
carry out the study.
4. Political acceptability: It is advisable to
research a topic that has the interest and support
of the authorities. This will facilitate the smooth
conduct of the research and increases the chance
that the results of the study will be implemented.
5. Urgency of data needed
• How urgently are the results needed for making a
decision? Which research should be done first and which
can be done late?
6.Applicability of possible results and recommendations
• Is it likely that the recommendations from the study will be
applied?
• This will depend not only on the blessing of the authorities
but also on the availability of resources for implementing
the recommendations.
7. Ethical acceptability
• We should always consider the possibility that we may
inflict harm on others while carrying out research.
• Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed study.
2.1.5. Techniques involved in Defining research Problem
• Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a
problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for
defining a research problem.
• The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones.
• A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined
problem may create hurdles.
Questions like:
• What data are to be collected?
• What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be
studied?
• What relations are to be explored.
• What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
and similar other questions crop up in the mind
of the researcher who can well plan his strategy
and find answers to all such questions only when
the research problem has been well defined.
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM
• AN ILLUSTRATION
• Let us start with the question: What does one
mean when he/she wants to define a research
problem?
• Defining a research problem properly and
clearly is a crucial part of a research study and
must in no case be accomplished hurriedly.
However, in practice this a frequently
overlooked which causes a lot of problems later
on.
• Hence, the research problem should be defined
in a systematic manner, giving due weightage
to all relating points. The technique for the
purpose involves the undertaking of the
following steps generally one after the other:
(i) formulating statement of the problem in a
general way;
a) understanding the nature of the problem;
b) surveying the available literature
c) developing the ideas through discussions; and
d) rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition.
• A brief description of all these points will be
helpful.
• the technique of defining a problem outlined
above can be illustrated as below for better
understanding by taking an example as under:
• Let us suppose that a research problem in a
broad general way is as follows:
2.1.6. Research problem in a general term;
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher
than in Ethiopia”?
 In this form, the question has a number of
ambiguities.
 The ambiguities include:
• What sort of productivity is being referred to?
• With what industries the productivity is
related?
• With what period of time the productivity is
being talked about?
• In view of all such ambiguities, the given
statement or the question is too much general
to be amenable to analysis.
• What factors were responsible for the higher
labor productivity of Japan’s manufacturing
industries during the decade 1971 to 1980
relative to Ethiopian manufacturing industries?”
• This latter version of the problem is definitely
an improvement over its earlier versions as
some of the ambiguities have been removed.
• Further rethinking and rephrasing might place
the problem on a still better operational basis
as shown below:
• “To what extent did labor productivity in 1971 to
1980 in Japan exceed that of Ethiopia in respect of
15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors
were responsible for the productivity differentials
between the two countries by industries?”
How to decide the researchablity of a research
question
Example :
• Problem situation: In district “Z” (population
150,000) there are 2 health centers, 1 hospital and
15 health stations and all of them function smoothly.
However, at the end of the year it was found that the
EPI vaccination coverage was only 25%.
• Discrepancy: Although district “Z” had 100%
availability of health services and at least 80%
of the children should have had full vaccinations
but the EPI coverage was only 25%.
• Problem question: What factors influence the
low EPI coverage in district “Z”?
Possible answers:
• Mothers might have problems for not attending
in the EPI sessions.
•The MCH, EPI, OPD, CDD, etc… programs might
not have been integrated;
Hence, children might have missed opportunities
in getting immunization.
• The follow up of defaulting children might not be
effective and other reasons.
 Thus, the above problem situation is
researchable.
Research Design
 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 The formidable problem that follows the task of
defining the research problem is the preparation
of the design of the research project, popularly
known as the “research design”.
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry or
a research study constitute a research design.
• “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
 Different research designs can be conveniently
described if we categorize them as:
(1) research design in case of exploratory
research studies;
(2) research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and
(3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies.
 We take up each category separately
Research design in case of exploratory research studies:
1. Exploratory research studies are also termed as
formulative research studies.
 The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating
a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view.
 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery
of ideas and insights.
 As such the research design appropriate for such
studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity
for considering different aspects of a problem under
study.
• Generally, the following three methods in the
context of research design for such studies are
talked about:
(a) the survey of concerning literature;
(b) the experience survey and
(c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.
A study design
• A study design is the process that guides
researchers on how to collect, analyze and
interpret observations. It is a logical model that
guides the investigator in the various stages of the
research.
• Several classifications of study types are possible,
depending on what research strategies are used.
• Non-intervention (Observational) studies in
which the researcher just observes and analyses
researchable objects or situations but does not
intervene; and
• Intervention studies: in which the researcher
manipulates objects or situations and
measures the outcome of his manipulations.
• Study designs could be
– exploratory,
– descriptive or
– analytical
FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
After selecting a specific research topic and
conducting a thorough literature review, you are
ready to take the next step in planning a
research study: clearly articulating the research
problem.
 The research problem typically takes the form of a
concise question regarding the relationship between
two or more variables;
 Examples of research problems include the following:
 (1) Is the onset of depression among elderly males
related to the development of physical limitations?
(2) What effect does land certification have on
sustainable land management?
(3) Does effective soil-water conservation have a
greater impact on agricultural productivity ?
(4) Can a memory enhancement class improve
the memory functioning of patients with
progressive dementia?
When articulating a research question, it is
critically important to make sure that the
question is specific enough to avoid confusion
and to indicate clearly what is being studied.
• In other words, the research problem should be
composed of a precisely stated research question
that clearly identifies the variables being studied.
• A vague research question often results in
methodological confusion, because the research
question does not clearly indicate what or who is
being studied.
• The following are some examples of vague and
nonspecific research questions:
(1) What effect does weather have on memory?
(2) Does exercise improve physical and mental health?
(3) Does taking street drugs result in criminal
behavior?
• As you can see, each of these questions is rather
vague, and it is impossible to determine exactly
what is being studied.
• For example, in the first question, what type of
weather is being studied, and memory for what?
• In the second question, is the researcher
studying all types of exercise, and the effects of
exercise on the physical and mental health of all
people or a specific subgroup of people?
• Finally, in the third question, which street drugs
are being studied, and what specific types of
criminal behavior?
• An effective way to avoid confusion in formulating
research questions is by using operational
definitions.
• Through the use of operational definitions,
researchers can specifically and clearly identify what
(or who) is being studied.
• Let’s say that a researcher is interested in studying
the effects of sever soil erosion on the agricultural
productivity among farming.
• The research question may be phrased in the
following manner: “What effects do soil erosions
have on the agricultural productivity among farming
community?”
• This may seem to be a fairly straightforward
research question, but upon closer examination, it
should become evident that there are several
important terms and concepts that need to be
defined. For example, what constitutes a “sever soil
erosion”; what does “agricultural productivity” refer
to; which farming community does it refer”; etc
• To reduce confusion, the terms and concepts
included in the research question need to be
clarified through the use of operational definitions.
• For example, “sever soil erosion ” may be defined as
----------------------------; “agricultural productivity”
may be defined as --------------------------------.
• An important point to keep in mind is that an
operational definition is specific to the particular
study in which it is used.
• For instance , different studies can operationally
define the same terms and concepts in different
ways. For example, in one study, a researcher may
define “rural-urban migrants ” as those People
who moved to urban areas over the last five years.
In another study, however, “rural-urban migrants ”
may be defined as people who moved to a given
urban center over the last 10years.
• providing an operational definition reduces
confusion by specifying what is being studied.
• A well-articulated statement of the problem
establishes the foundation for everything to
follow in the proposal and will render less
problematic most of the conceptual, rhetorical and
methodological obstacles typically encountered
during the process of proposal development.
• This means that, in subsequent sections of the
proposal, there should be no surprises, such as
categories, questions, variables or data sources
that come out of nowhere: if it can't be found in
the problem statement section, at least at the
implicit level, then it either does not belong in the
study or the problem statement needs to be re-
written.
a) Why is it important to state and define the problem
well?
Because a clear statement of the problem:
• ƒIs the foundation for the further development of
the research proposal (research objectives,
methodology, work plan, etc);
• ƒ Makes it easier to find information and reports of
similar studies from which your own study design
can benefit;
• ƒ Enables the researcher to systematically point out
why the proposed research on the problem should
be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with
the study results.
 II) Points that need to be considered for
justifying the selected research problem
A research problem selected to be studied has
to be justified in terms of its:
 Being a current and existing problem which
needs solution
 Being a widely spread problem affecting a
target population
 Effects on the health service programs
 Being a problem which concerns the
planners, policy makers and the communities
at large.
 III) Information included in the statement of a
problem
•A brief description of socio-economic and cultural
characteristics and an overview of land resource.
• A more detailed description of the nature of the
problem
• basic description of the research problem
• the discrepancy between what is and what
should be
• its size, distribution, and severity (who is
affected, where, since when, etc.)
• An analysis of the major factors that may influence
the problem and a convincing argument that
available knowledge is insufficient to answer a
certain question and to update the previous
knowledge.
• A brief description of any solutions that have been
tried in the past, how well they have worked, and
why further research is needed.
• A description of the type of information expected
to result from the project and how this
information will be used to help solve the problem
• If necessary, a short list of definitions of crucial
concepts used in the statement of the problem.
• Example of the Flow of Ideas in the Problem
Statement
1) Why do we need to analyze the research
problem?
2) What are the points required to justify the
selected research problem?
3) What information should be included in the
statement of a problem?
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 Introduction
 Having decided what to study, and knowing why s/he
wants to study it, the investigator can now formulate
his study objectives.
 Objectives should be closely related to the statement
of the problem. For example, if the problem identified
is low utilization of health stations in a rural district,
the general objective of the study could be to assess
the reasons for this low utilization.
 If we break down this general objective into smaller
and logically connected parts, then we get specific
objectives.
Definitions
General objectives: aim of the study in general terms
• Example: In a study on “impacts of public land holding
system on agricultural productivity in Jimma Zone” the
general objective was: “to assess impacts of public land
holding system on agricultural productivity in Jimma
Zone”.
Specific objectives: are measurable statements on the
specific questions to be answered.
• Unlike the general objectives, the specific objectives are
more specific and are related to the research problem
situation.
• They indicate the variable to be examined and measured.
• Example: In the study of “impacts of public land
holding system on agricultural productivity in Qersa
Wereda” the specific objectives could be:
• To assess the trend of agricultural productivity in ,
Qersa Wereda.
• Identify how public landholding system impacts
agricultural productivity in Qersa Wereda.
Formulation of the research objectives
The formulation of objectives will help us to:
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
• Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary
for understanding and solving the identified problem
• Organize the study in clearly defined parts
• The explicit formulation of study objectives is an
essential step in the planning of a study.
• It is said that “a question well-stated is a
question half-answered”, but a question that is
poorly stated or unstated is unlikely to be
answered at all.
• How should we state our objectives?
We have to make sure that our objectives:
• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its
contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence
•Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
•Are realistic considering local conditions
• Meet the purpose of the study
•Use action verbs that are specific enough to be
measured.
Examples of action verbs are:
- to determine
- to compare
- to identify
- to verify
- to assess
- Examine
• to calculate
• to describe
• to find out
• to establish, etc,
Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;
• - to appreciate
• - to understand
• - to study
• - to believe
Research objectives can be stated as:
 Questions- the objectives of this study are to answer
the following questions ….
 Positive sentence- the objectives of this study are to
find out, to establish, to determine, …
 Hypothesis- the objective of this study is to verify
the following hypothesis (examples are given below)
• A hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between
one or more variables and the problem under study.
• That is, it specifies the relationship among variables.
These variables are to be statistically tested at a later
stage.
• In order to measure the relationship among variables to be studied
the dependent and independent variables need to be identified.
• A few examples are given below:
 The amount of chemical fertilizer used by farmers affected by
income
 Farmers access to modern agricultural input is influenced by
distance.
 One of the most important problems usually observed among
students is the tendency of stating too many study objectives
which are not appropriately addressed (or sometimes will be
forgotten) in the sections that follow.
 It should be noted that it is on the bases of these specific
objectives that the methods, results and discussion sections will be
presented.
 We also develop our research tools in such a way that they can
answer our research objectives.
 It is therefore advisable to limit the number of specific
objectives. In most practical situations, the number of
specific objectives should not exceed three.
Exercises
1. Define general objectives, specific objectives and
hypotheses by giving your own examples.
2. The objectives of a study should be written after the
statement of the research problem and before the
methods section. Does this statement sound true? Justify
your answer.
3. List the characteristics of research objectives.
4. Comment on the statement: “A question well-stated is
a question half-answered”.
5. Mention some of the problems that may arise as a
result of having too many objectives.
 Review of related Literature
What is a literature review?
• Literature review is not a compilation of every
work written about a topic. It is not simply a list
of sources reviewed separately for their own
merit.
• A literature review is a description of the
literature relevant to a particular field or topic.
• It gives an overview of what has been said, who
the key writers are, what are the prevailing
theories and hypotheses, what questions are
being asked, and what methods and
methodologies are appropriate and useful.
Use of literature review
a) It prevents you from duplicating work that has
been done before.
b) It increases your knowledge on the problem
you want to study and this may assist you in
refining your "statement of the problem".
c) It gives you confidence why your particular
research project is needed.
d) To be familiar with different research methods.
e) To properly design your research questions .
f) discover what statistical knowledge exists
related to you research topic
g) find gaps (and possibly errors) in published
research
h) generate new original ideas
i) justify the relevance of your proposed
research.
j) It demonstrates to a Ph.D. committee that the
student has read a large amount of statistical
literature to prove that the student is aware of
the wide range of research in theory and
methodology related to the proposed research
topic.
Sources of information :
Related literatures can be obtained from:
• ƒ books (monographs, text books, reference books);
articles from journals, whether print or electronic
(but make sure electronic journals have been subject
to the peer review process);
newspaper articles;
historical records;
commercial reports and statistical information;
government reports and statistical information;
Unpublished documents (studies in related fields,
reports, etc.)
Organizations (institutions)
.
  Computer based literature searches
 thesis and dissertations;
 other types of information which may be relevant to your
particular discipline
References that are identified:
• ƒ Should first be skimmed or read
• ƒ Then summaries of the important information in each
of the references may be recorded on separate index
cards
• ƒ These should then be classified so that the
information can easily be retrieved.
Organization of information on index cards
 The index cards should contain:
 Key words
• A summary of the contents of books or articles
which is relevant to one's own study
• A brief analysis of the content, with comments
such as:
- how information from that particular study
could be used in one's own study
• Information obtained from key persons could
also be summarized on the index card.
 After collecting the required information on
index cards, the investigator should decide in
Which order he/she wants to discuss previous
research findings:
• from global to local
 from broader to focused
 from past to current
In conclusion, while reviewing a literature, all
what is known about the study topic should be
summarized with the relevant references. This
review should answer
 ƒ How much is known?
 ƒ What is not known?
 ƒ What should be done based on what is
lacking?
• While reviewing a literature give emphasis to
both positive and negative findings and avoid any
distortion of information to suit your own study
objectives.
• Finally, after an exhaustive literature review,
summarize the findings and write a coherent
discussion by indicating the research gap which
supports the undertaking of your study.
• Why is literature review important when
preparing a proposal?
• Every statement in a literature review must be
supported either by a reference to published
statistical literature.
• In a literature review, you do not present all of
the details found in the references. For example,
you can state a theorem, but you do not have to
present a proof of the theorem.
• That is, you can (in general) assume the results
in the published statistical literature are
established facts.
• By providing the source of the reference, your
advisor and committee can go to the original
reference for all of the details.
• scope of what you need to look out for when you read.
• Carry out a search for relevant materials
Conceptual framework
• Every research activity is conceptualized and will be carried out
within some contextual framework.
• This contextual framework is in part conceptual, in part valuational,
and in part practical (or operational), and all of these factors must
typically be considered.
• A conceptual framework is described as a set of broad ideas and
principles taken from relevant fields of enquiry and used to
structure a subsequent presentation.
• When clearly articulated, a conceptual framework has potential
usefulness as a tool to scaffold research and, therefore, to assist a
researcher to make meaning of subsequent findings.
• Such a framework should be intended as a starting point for
reflection about the research and its context.
• The framework is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to
develop awareness and understanding of the situation under
scrutiny and to communicate this.
 CHAPTER ----- RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
• In the previous chapters we have dealt with the
identification, selection, analysis and statement of the
problem.
• The importance of literature review and formulation of
study objectives were also emphasized.
• Now we must decide exactly how we are going to achieve
our stated objectives.
• That is, what new data do we need to shed light on the
problem we have selected and how we are going to collect
and process these data.
• The major issues that constitute the "methods section" of
a research proposal will be dealt in the sections that
follow.
Study Designs
 A study design is a blue print that guides
researchers on how to collect, analyze and
interpret observations. It is a logical model that
guides the investigator in the various stages of
the research.
 MAJOR RESEARCH APPROACHES( MAJOR RESEARCH
PARADIGMS)
• the three major research approaches that are followed
in social sciences researches are:
a) The Quantitative research approach ,
b) The qualitative research approach , and
c) The mixed research approach
a) The Quantitative research approach: Research that
relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data.
b)The qualitative research approach:relies on the
collection of qualitative data (i.e., non-numerical data
such as words and pictures) and follows the other
characteristics of the qualitative research paradigm.
• The Mixed research approach: involves the mixing
of quantitative and qualitative research methods,
approaches, or other paradigm characteristics.
• The exact mixture that is considered appropriate
will depend on the research questions and the
situational and practical issues facing a researcher.
The following are the key differences:
1)Quantitative researchers consider hypothesis
formulation and hypothesis testing as the most
important step while qualitative researchers
primarily focuses on the exploratory scientific
method.
• It is used when little is known about a topic or
phenomenon and when one wants to discover
or learn more about it .
• Qualitative research is also used to describe
what is seen locally and only sometimes it tries
to come up with new hypotheses and theories.
• Quantitative researchers assume that human
behaviors are highly predictable and
explainable. For example, the process by which
children learn to read is determined by one or
more causes.
So that it is possible to draw sound generalizations.
On the other hand, qualitative researchers often view
human behavior as being fluid, dynamic and changing
over time and so that they usually are not interested in
generalizing beyond the particular people who are
studied. Mixed researchers do see positive value in
both the quantitative and the qualitative views of human
behavior.
• Quantitative research often uses what might be
called a ―narrow-angle lens‖ because the focus is
only on one or a few causal factors at a time.
• Quantitative researchers attempt to hold constant
the factors that are not being studied. Qualitative
researchers use a wide- and deep-angle lens,
examining human choice and behavior as it
occurs naturally in all of its detail.
• Qualitative researchers study behavior
naturalistically and holistically.
RESEARCH DESIGNS APPLICABLE TO QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much,
by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design.
 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”
 In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
1) Exploratory Research Design
 An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively
short duration, which is carried out when little is
known about a situation or a problem. It may include
description as well as comparison.
 For example:
 A national AIDS Control Programme wishes to
establish counseling services for HIV positive and
AIDS patients, but lacks information on specific needs
patients have for support. To explore these needs, a
number of in-depth interviews are held with various
categories of patients (males, females, married and
single) and with some counselors working on a
programme that is already under way.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
 Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a
house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the
map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert
architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in
advance of data collection and analysis for our research project
 Although there are endless ways of classifying research
designs, quantitative research designs can broadly be
divided into two types, namely,
 Exploratory Research Design and
 Conclusive Research Design
 Exploratory research allows researchers to
explore issues in detail in order to familiarize
themselves with the problem or concept to be
studied.
 Exploratory research is the initial research,
which forms the basis of more conclusive
research.
 It can even help in determining the research
design, sampling, and methodology and data
collection methods.
II. Conclusive Research Design: conclusive research
design embraces:
1) Descriptive research design and
2) Causal research design.
Descriptive Research: Descriptive research, as the
name suggests, enumerates descriptive data about the
population being studied and does not try to establish a
causal relationship between events.
 This is also one of its major limitations as it cannot
help determine what causes a specific behavior or
occurrence.
 It is used to describe an event, happening or to
provide a factual and accurate description of the
population being studied.
• It provides the number of times something
occurs and helps in determining the descriptive
statistics about a population, that is, the
average number of occurrences or frequency of
occurrences.
• In a descriptive study, things are measured
as they are, whereas in an experimental
study researchers take measurements, try some
intervention and then take measurements again
to see the impact of that intervention.
• Descriptive research can be further classified
into the following types:
a) Case study.
b) Case series study.
c) The survey design
d) Retrospective study
Case study. is the simplest kind of descriptive
study, which reports data on only one subject,
individual or social process.
 Case studies are now used worldwide as an
accepted tool to document innovative
approaches, success stories and failures.
Case series study is the descriptive study of
a few cases. For example, studying success
stories of resource-based self-help groups to
identify their commonality.
IV) Case-control studies / Retrospective
studies: Case-control studies compare cases
with a particular characteristic of control
subjects, that is, subjects without the attribute in
order to determine.
• a causal effect, for example, cases of tuberculosis
and the number of cigarettes smoked per day.
Case control studies are also known as
retrospective studies because they focus on
conditions, which might have resulted in
subjects becoming cases.
• V) The Survey research Design – is one of the
designs characterized by several merits and
demerits.
• The survey design is divided into two. These are:
a) Cross-sectional studies design and
b) Longitudinal design longitudinal design
• Cross-sectional studies design: Commonly used in social
sciences research. It portrays a snap shot of the prevalent
situation as in these studies variables of interest in a sample
are assessed only once to determine the relationships
between them.
• The most commonly seen surveys use the cross sectional
design, which asks questions of people at one point in time.
• longitudinal design: In the case of a longitudinal design, the
same questions are asked at two or more points in time.
• Longitudinal design can be further classified into three
subtypes :
 trend study,
 cohort study
Panel study and
 Retrospective studies:
a) Trend study can be defined as a repeated cross-
sectional design where the same set of questions
are asked to different sets of people/target
population at different points in time.
 In trend studies, the variables of interest/concepts
are assessed as a function of time.
b) Cohort study is a trend study that studies
changes in cohorts, that is, the same set of people
who experience the same kind of life or the same
events over time.
 In prospective or cohort studies, some variables
are assessed at the start of a study then after a period
of time the outcomes are determined.
 For example, assessing the impact of a communication
campaign on awareness levels of a target audience
would be a cohort study.
 For example, assessing the impact of a communication
campaign on awareness levels of a target audience
would be a cohort study.
C) Panel study asks the same set of questions to the
same people over time and is used to assess changes
in the panel respondent‘s characteristics over times.
 In a nutshell, trend studies essentially look at how
concepts/variables of interest change over time; cohort
studies look at how the behavior of the same set of
people changes over time; and panel studies look at
how people change over time.
Merits of survey research
• Survey research has a number of advantages that have
made it the most popular type of research in social
sciences.
• The following are some of the merits:
a) Survey research is highly flexible. It is possible to
study a wide range of research questions using
survey methods. You can describe a situation,
study relationships between variables and so on.
Because survey research does not set up an artificial
situation like an experiment,
b) It is easier to generalize findings to real-world
settings, as this is where the research takes place.
c) Survey design allows us to gather large
amounts of data from large number of research
participants at reasonably low cost and effort
compared to other methods like observation.
d) It is also easy to guarantee respondents‘
anonymity, especially with pencil-and-paper,
internet and telephone questionnaires, which
may lead to more frank answers than less
anonymous methods like interviews
• Survey research is therefore particularly suited for
canvassing opinions and feelings about particular
issues. The use of standardized questions allows for easy
comparability between respondents and groups of
respondents (differences between men and women, for
example).
Demerits of survey research
a) Obviously, surveys do not allow the researcher to
control the environment and are therefore less suited to
answering questions of causality than experimental designs.
b) While questionnaires are highly suited to gathering
information on respondents‘ perceptions and opinions of
a situation, gathering information on respondent
behaviors can be problematic as self reports are not
always reliable in this respect.
II) Causal Research Design
• Causal research design is defined as a
research design where the main emphasis is on
determining a cause and effect relationship.
• It is undertaken to determine which variable
might be causing certain behavior, that is,
whether there is a cause and effect relationship
between variables and if relationship exists then
what is the nature of the causal relationship.
• In order to determine causality, it is
important to hold one variable constant to
assess change in the other variable and then
measure the changes in the other variable.
• Causal research by nature is not very easy
as it is very difficult to ascertain the causal
relationship between the observed variable
and the variable of interest due to the effect of
other independent variables (extraneous
variables), especially when dealing with
people‘s attitudes and perceptions.
• There are two research methods/designs for
exploring the cause and effect relationship
between variables.
1) experimental design and
2) Quasi-experimental design
Experimental Research Design
• Experimental studies are characterized by a
control group and an experimental groups and
subjects are assigned randomly to either group.
• Researchers try to maintain control over all other
factors that may affect the result of an experiment
as experimentation is still believed to be and is used
as one of the most important research designs for
establishing causality between variables.
• It allows the researcher to manipulate a specific
independent variable in order to determine what
effect this manipulation would have on other
dependent variables.
• Another important criterion, while following
the experimental research design, is to decide
on the setting of the experiment, that is,
whether it should take place in a natural
setting or in an artificial one.
• Experimental studies/designs are also known
as longitudinal or repeated-measure studies.
• They are also referred to as interventions,
because of the use of control and experimental
groups.
Types of Experimental Design
a) Before-and-after without control design: In such a
design a single test group or area is selected and the
dependent variable is measured before the
introduction of the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced and the dependent
variable is measured again after the treatment has been
introduced. The effect of the treatment would be equal
to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment
minus the level of the phenomenon before the
treatment.
 The main difficulty of such a design is that with the
passage of time considerable extraneous variations may
be there in its treatment effect.
2. After-only with control design: In this design two
groups or areas (test area and control area) are selected
and the treatment is introduced into the test area only.
 The dependent variable is then measured in both the
areas at the same time.
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value
of the dependent variable in the control area from its
value in the test area.
• The basic assumption in such a design is that the
two areas are identical with respect to their
behavior towards the phenomenon considered. If
this assumption is not true, there is the possibility
of extraneous variation entering into the
treatment effect.
• However, data can be collected in such a design
without the introduction of problems with the
passage of time. In this respect the design is
superior to before-and-after without control
design.
3. Before-and-after with control design: In this
design two areas are selected and the dependent
variable is measured in both the areas for a identical
time-period before the treatment. The treatment is
then introduced into the test area only, and the
dependent variable is measured in both for an
identical time-period after the introduction of the
treatment.
 The treatment effect is determined by subtracting
the change in the dependent variable in the
control area from the change in the dependent
variable in test area. This design can be shown in
this way
• This design is superior to the above two designs
for the simple reason that it avoids extraneous
variation resulting both from the passage of time
and from non-comparability of the test and
control areas. But at times, due to lack of
historical data, time or a comparable control area,
we should prefer to select one of the first two
informal designs stated above.
 Case Study Design
Definition and Purpose
 A case study is an in-depth study of a particular
research problem rather than a far-reaching statistical
survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry.
 It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of
research into one or a few easily researchable
examples.
 The case study research design is also useful for
testing whether a specific theory and model actually
applies to phenomena in the real world.
 It is a useful design when not much is known about
an issue or phenomenon.
Advantages of Case Study Design
1) A researcher using a case study design can apply a
variety of methodologies and rely on a variety of
sources to investigate a research problem.
2) Case Study Design can extend experience or add
strength to what is already known through previous
research.
3) Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this
research design to examine contemporary real-life
situations and provide the basis for the application of
concepts and theories and the extension of
methodologies.
4) The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific
and rare cases.
(II) Disadvantage of Case Study Design
a) A single or small number of cases offers little
basis for establishing reliability or to generalize
the findings to a wider population of people,
places, or things.
b) Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias
a researcher's interpretation of the findings.
c) Design does not facilitate assessment of cause
and effect relationships.
d) The case may not be representative or typical of
the larger problem being investigated
 Causal Design
Definition and Purpose
• Causality studies may be thought of as understanding
a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in
the form, “If X, then Y.”
• This type of research is used to measure what impact a
specific change will have on existing norms and
assumptions.
• Most social scientists seek causal explanations that
reflect tests of hypotheses.
• Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when
variation in one phenomenon, an independent
variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in
another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Conditions necessary for determining causality:
 Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is
based on finding an association between the
independent variable and the dependent variable.
•Appropriate time order -- to conclude that
causation was involved, one must see that cases
were exposed to variation in the independent
variable before variation in the dependent variable.
 Non-spuriousness -- a relationship between two
variables that is not due to variation in a third
variable.
Qualitative Research Designs
• In qualitative research, the numbers and types of
strategies also become more clearly visible during the
1990s. The common strategies which suit qualitative
approach are the following:
• Ethnographies: in which the researcher studies an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period
of time by collecting, primarily observational data
(Creswell, 1998).
• Grounded theory: in which the researcher attempts to
derive a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or
interaction grounded in the views of participants in a
study. This process involves using multiple stages of data
collection and the refinement and interrelationship of
categories of information.
• Case studies: in which the researcher explores in
depth a program, and event, and activity, a
process, or one or more individuals.
• The cases (s) are bounded by time and
activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection
procedures over a sustained period of time
(Stake, 1995).