ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

BY EBEPOA
 course outline
• Definition
• Homologous series
• Functional groups
- Structural isomerism
• Isomerism - Stereoisomerism
• Alkanes and cycloalkanes (naphthenes): nomenclature, isomerism, physical
properties and reactivity and laboratory test, uses
• Alkenes: ): nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory test,
uses
• Alkynes : nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory test,
uses
• Benzene : nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory test,
uses
• Alcohols: nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory test,
uses
• Carboxylic acids: nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory
test, uses
• Amines: nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory test, uses
• Amides: nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties and reactivity and laboratory test, uses
• Petroleum: origin, traps and processes
• Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the
structure, properties, and reactions of organic
compound and materials.
• Its chemistry that contain carbon atom.
• In each part we will study the physical and
chemical properties of these compounds.
• Organic chemistry is classify into compounds
and each compound have similar chemical and
physical properties. These classification is called
homologous series
 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
• It’s the classification of organic compounds
having a general formula and similar chemical
properties
• Example: CnH2n is the general formula for
alkene and CnH2n - 2 is the general formula for
alkynes
 FUNCTIONAL GROUP
• Except for alkanes special group of atoms in
each organic compound give them special
properties and these special atoms are called
functional group
E.g
 ISOMERISM
• Isomerism is the existence of molecules that
have the same molecular formula, but have a
different arrangement of the atoms in space.
• There are two types of isomerism
Structural isomerism
Stereoisomerism
 STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
• Structural Isomers have different structural formulae because
their atoms are linked together in different ways.
• It arises owing to:·
1. Arrangement of Carbon skeleton e.g.
• The formula C4H10 represents two possible structural formulae
• Butane and methylpropane:
2. Position of Functional group
e.g. propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol

3. Different Functional groups

e.g. the molecular formula C2H6O represents both ethanol and
methoxymethane.
 Tautomerism
• These are constitutional isomers of organic compounds that
readily interconvert by a chemical reaction called tautomerization.
• This reaction commonly results in the formal migration of a
hydrogen atom accompanied by a switch of a single bond and an
adjacent double bond
• Some examples of tautomers include:
 STEREOISOMERISM
• Stereoisomers have the same structure and bond order but
their atoms and groups of atoms are arranged differently in
space.
• They have different spatial arrangements and their molecules
are not superimposable.
There are two types:·
1. Geometric Isomerism
• Involves a double bond, usually C=C, that does not allow free
rotation about the double bond.
 OPTICAL ISOMERISM
• Optical isomerism Involves an atom, usually carbon, bonded to four different atoms
or groups of atoms.
• They exist in pairs, in which one isomer is the mirror image of the other. e.g. butan-
2-ol

• These isomers are referred to as enantiomers.

• The central carbon atom to which four different atoms or groups are attached, is
called an asymmetrical carbon atom.
 ALKANES
• Definition: The alkanes are a family of simple
hydrocarbons with general fomular CnH(2n+2) where n=1,
2, 3,..

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons

• Each carbon atom in an alkane group is bonded by
four other atoms (carbon or hydrogen atoms) by
single covalent bonds.
• Each molecule of an alkane group differs from the
other by a CH2
 NAMING THE ALKANES
• The naming of a straight chain alkane consists
of two component parts.
• The root name
• Its ending which ends in –ane-
• Side chain presentations and isomerism
formation
Number of carbon Root Name of
atoms name compound

1 Meth- Methane

2 Eth- Ethane

3 Prop- Propane

4 But- Butane

5 Pent- Pentane

6 Hex- Hexane

7 Hept- Heptane

8 Oct- Octane
9 Non- Nonane
10 Dec- Decane
 FORMULAE FOR ORGANIC MOLECULES
• An organic compound has a molecular formula
and a structural formula.
• Example of a molecular formula is C2H6 . This
means that an ethane molecule has two
carbon atom and six hydrogen atom
• The structural formula of ethane is
• the condensed structural formula for ethane
is CH3CH3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
• They cannot conduct electricity (they are non-
metals)
• They have low melting and boiling points (since
molecules are held by weak intermolecular
forces which can broken by less energy ). Their
melting and boiling points increases as the
number of carbon atom increases.
• Alkanes are less dense than water with a density
of 1.0 gcm
 Halogenation of alkanes
• Halogenation of alkanes: this is a reaction in
which the alkanes react with halogens element
to form halo-alkanes. Elements of the halogen
group include Flourine, Chlorine, Iodine and
Astatine
• CH4(g) + Cl2(g) sunlight
CH3CL + HCL(g)
• chloromethane hydrogen chloride gas

• CH3CL + CL2(g) CH2CL2 + HCL(g)

• dichloromethane hydrogen chloride gas
 CRACKING
• Cracking is a process of breaking larger molecule
of hydrocarbons into smaller ones. The process
of cracking usually involve the use of a catalyst
and high temperature
400-600 C 0
conditions
• C4H10(g) Al2O3- SiO2 C4H8(g) +C
Butene 3H6(g) +C
Propene 2H4(g)+ H2(g)
Ethene Hydrogen gas

• During this process hydrogen gas is given off as a by-product

• cracking is one of the methods used to convert alkanes to alkenes
 NOMENCLATURE
• It is the process of naming hydrocarbons. The
rules for naming branched chain hydrocarbons
include
• Go to hand outs
 CYCLOALKANES (NAPHTHENES)
• These are alkanes in which the carbon-atoms
are join in a ring. They have a general formula
CnH2n. The smallest cycloalkane is
cyclopropane
 Structure of cycloalkanes
• In the handout
 Chemical and physical properties
• They have similar chemical and physical
properties like their alkanes counterpart
• Larger and smaller molecules of cycloalkanes
are unreactive
 USES OF ALKANES
• Propane and Butane are used as Liquified Petroleum Gas
(LPG), aviation fuels and gas burners
• Butane is used in cigarette lighters
• Octane is used as a gasoline component
• Alkanes with C-atom 9-16 are use as diesel and aviation
fuels
• Alkanes with C-atoms greater than 17 are use a fuel,
lubricating and anti-corrosive oil
• Alkanes with C-atoms greater than 35 are used for road
surfacing (black tar)
• Alkanes with C-atoms greater than 1000 are used as
synthetic polymers ()
 FORMATION OF METHANE
• Methane is formed as an end product of
anaerobic (without) decay of plants and
animals. Usually most source of petrol in the
earth crust.
Carbon from dead Hydrogen gas Methane gas
organic matter of

C(s)
plants and animals
+ 2H2(g) CH4(g)
 USES OF METHANE

• Use in electricity generation in generators as

fuel or gas
• Use as fuel gas for domestic use.
• Use as feedstock for the production of
hydrogen and methanol
• Use as a green house gas to trap Ultra violet
light from reaching the earth surface
• Formation of methane
 ALKENES
• Definition: The alkenes are a family of simple
hydrocarbons with general fomula CnH2n where n=1, 2, 3,..
• Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a C=C
double bond between carbon atoms.
• The C=C double bond is the functional group of the
family and this functional group determine the physical
and chemical properties of the organic molecule
• Each molecule of an alkene group differs from the
other by a CH2
• The smallest alkene molecule is ethene with formular
• C2H4
 NOMENCLATURE

• Name Molecular
• formula
• Ethene C2H4
• Propene C3H6
• But-1-ene C4H8
•  Pent-1-ene  C5H10 
Hex-1-ene   C6H12 
• Hept-1-ene  C7H14
•  Oct-1-ene  C8H16
• Non-1-ene   C9H18 
• Dec-1-ene  C10H20
•  

• Hexadecene (C16H32)
 NOMENCLATURE
• The naming of a straight chain alkenes consists
of two component parts.
• The root name
• Its ending which ends in –ene-
• The one is indicating the position of the
double bond. We didn’t have the one in the
first two because no matter where u put it, it
will still be in the first carbon atom
• Name the longest possible functional group or
chain.
• Identify the side chain with the smallest
number
• Identify the position of the double bond
 Isomerism in alkenes
• Isomers are molecules that have the same
molecular formula, but have a different
arrangement of the atoms in space.
• Geometric Isomers in alkenes
• Double bonds can exist as geometric isomers and these
isomers are designated by using either the cis / trans isomers.
• cis –isomers: The two largest groups are on the same side of
the double bond.
• trans Isomers...The two largest groups are on opposite sides of
the double bond.
Examples
 Chemical reaction

• Addition reactions
• Alkenes react in many addition reactions,
which occur by opening up the double-bond

a) HYDROGENATION:
The addition of hydrogen molecule to an alkene
converts it to an alkane
Example: ethene (ethylene) to form ethane
 • HYDRATION
• The addition of water to an alkene is called
hydration and it converts it to alcohol
• CH2=CH2 + H2O → CH3-CH2OH
• (ethene to ethanol)
• usually this is how industrial scale alcohols
are formed and also converting alkenes to
alcohols
 HALOGENATION

• The addition of elemental bromine or

chlorine to alkenes yields dibromo- and
dichloroalkanes respectively.
The decoloration of a solution of bromine
in water with dichloromethylene as
catalyst is an analytical test for the
presence of alkenes: (Experiment 2)
• CH2=CH2 + Br2 → BrCH2-CH2Br
 HYDROHALOGENATION (MARKOVNIKOF’S RULE)

• the rule stated that “during a hydrohalo reaction, the

hydrogen atom is added to the carbon with the greater
number of hydrogen atoms while the halo component is
added to the carbon with the fewer number of hydrogen
atoms. In the reaction below the major compound form is
2,bromoethane rather than bromoethane
 HALOHYDRINATION
• HALOHYDRIN Formation
• Alkenes react with water and halogens to form
halohydrins by an addition reaction. They form
halo-alcohols. Where X is a halomolecule
• CH2=CH2 + X2 + H2O → XCH2-CH2OH + HX
• Example
•
 ADDITION OF HYDROXYL GROUP
• When alkenes are treated with acidified potassium
permanganate(VII) solution two hydroxyl groups are added to
the double bond. The result is a colourless organic compound
called diol. The di- is two and ol- is the presence of an alcohol
group OH OH
Acc KMnO
• CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(L) + [O] 4
H-C- C-H
OH OH
Ethane-1,2-diol
TEST FOR ALKENES
 Ethene decolourises the purple colour of acidified Potassium
permanganate (VII)
 Acidified potassium permanganate can be use to test for the
presence of a double bond in compounds (test for ALKENES)
 POLYMERIZATION
• Polymerization is the combination of smaller
molecules of alkenes to form larger molecules.
• Smaller molecules are called monomers while
the larger ones are called polymers.
• The type of polymerization that occur in
alkenes is known as addition polymerization
Example: Addition of two monomers of pentene
to form nonene
 SUMMARY OF ALKENES (ETHENE )
CH2OHCH2OH CO2 + H2O CO + C + H2O
(ethane-1,2-diol)
Excess O2 ,
Cold acidified
heat Limited O2 ,
dilute KMnO4
heat

CH3CH3 Ni/ H2 Addition [CH2CH2 ]n

ETHENE
(ETHANE) 180 0C
polymerization
Br2(aq)
HBr(g) 0
300 C, 60 atm
CH2 BrCH2Br H2O (g) H3PO4

(1,2- dibromoethane) CH3CH2 Br CH3CH2 OH

(Bromoethane)
(ethanol)

Reaction map of ETHENE

 Uses of alkenes
• Alkenes are extremely important in the
manufacture of plastics. e.g. polyethene.
• For the manufacture of a wide variety of
polymers, e.g.,, polyvinylchloride (PVC)
• They are used for artificial ripening of fruits,
• They are used as a general anaesthetic
• for making poisonous war gas.
 ALKYNES
• Alkynes are a family of simple hydrocarbons with
general fomula CnH2n - 2 where n=1, 2, 3,..
• Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a C≡C
tripple bond between carbon atoms.
• Alkynes are generally highly reactive but they are not
widely distributed in nature as alkenes.
• Each molecule of an alkyne group differs from the
other by a CH2 group
• The smallest alkyne molecule is ethyne with formular
• C2H2
• Alkynes don’t undergo stereoisomerism
because the triple bond is shorter in alkynes
and cannot rotate
• There exist isomers of alkynes
• Example
butyne but-2-yne
 ADDITION REACTION OF ALKYNES
HALOGENATION REACTION
When an alkyne reacts with a halo-compound
they form a trans-isomer
in limited chlorine they form trans-2,3
Dichlorobut-2-yne CH3 CH3
CH≡CHCH2CH2 + Cl2 C=C
Cl Cl
trans-2,3dichlorobut-2-yne
In excess chlorine it gives tetrachlorobutane
Cl Cl
CH≡CHCH2CH2 + Cl2 CH_ CH
Cl Cl
tetrachlorobutane
 HYDROBORATION
Diborane reacts readily with alkynes, in the presence of ether to
form disiamylborane which opens a way for a further substitution
reaction.
(CH3)2C=CHCH3 +BH3 in ether  —> [(CH3)2CH-CH(CH3)]2BH
  disiamylborane
Addition reaction of disiamylborane with an alkyne in the presence
of hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide to gives a methyl
Ketone and an aldehyde following the mackonikov rule
CH3C≡CH + (C5H11)2B-H +H2O2 + NaOH —> CH3CH=CH-OH + CH3CH2-CH=O
ketone aldehyde
 There are twp types of alkynes: terminal and non terminal alkynes.
 Terminal alkynes are ones inwhich the triple bond is found on the last or
first carbon atom like propyne, ethyne, n-butyne etc
 Usually, terminal akynes are very acidic than non terminal alkynes
 HYDRATION
• Tautomers are defined as rapidly interconverted
constitutional isomers, usually distinguished by a
different bonding location for a labile hydrogen atom
(colored red here) and a differently located double
bond. Example of tautomers are ketones and aldehyde
• The addition of water to alkyne gives ketone but for
acetylene that gives aldehydes. This reaction is call
oxymercuration
• HC≡CH + H2O + HgSO4 + H2SO4 —> H2C=CHOH
Acetylene or ethyne Mercuricsulfate Sulphuric acid aldehyde

CH3C≡CH + H2O + HgSO4 + H2SO4 —> H2C=CHOCH 3

propyne Mercuricsulfate Sulphuric acid ketone
 OXIDATION
• The reaction of ozone with an alkyne yields a
carboxylic acid in the presence of potassium
permanganate
Zn/KMnO
• CH3C≡CCH3+ O3 — — > CH 3COOH + CH 3COOH
4

• This reaction process is known as OZONOLYSIS

 Test for alkynes (bromine test)
• An unsaturated HC is treated with a small amount of
elemental bromine or dichloromethane or
carbontetrachloride.
• Unsaturation is shown by the disappearance of the deep
brown coloration of bromine when the bromine has
been used up by reaction with the unknown sample.
The formation of a white precipitate indicates that the
unknown an unsaturated hydrocarbon. The more
unsaturated an unknown is, the more bromine it can
decolourise
 Uses of alkynes
• They are used as fuels in welding - this is because
of the presence of triple bond which causes
alkynes to burn at a temperature of about 33000C
• Ethyne is use in blow touches
• Propyne is used as rocket fuel instead of
hydrogen because it can be stored as a liquid
under compression without using cryogenic
storage
• most alkynes are used as medicines like
norethynodrel used as antifungal
 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS OR ARENES
• Aromatic hydrocarbon are characterized
by general alternating double and single
bonds between carbon atoms. They are
called 'aromatic' because they have a
sweet scent. The simplest possible arene
is BENZENE
• Arenes can be monoclyclic (Mono-
aromatic hydrocarbon {MAH}) or
polycyclic (Poly- aromatic hydrocarbon
{PAH})
 BENZENE (C6H6)
• BENZENE, is the simplest arene which was was first
recognised by AUGUST KEKULÉ in the 19th century

BONDING IN BENZENE
• Each carbon atom has four electrons to share.
One goes to the hydrogen atom, and one each to
the two neighboring carbons.
• This leaves one to share with one of its two
neighboring carbon atoms, which is why the
benzene molecule is drawn with alternating
single and double bonds.
• This structure was first proposed by KEKULÉ

The first benzene structure as proposed by KEKULÉ

But when he went back to the lab and alternate the position of the double bonds he
had the same results so he said benzene has a resonance structure

The resonance structure of benzene with alternate double bond

It was later realized that benzene is made of a cloud of delocalized electrons in its
middle whereby floating above and below the ring.

Floating electron above

With electron cloud

Floating electron below

With electron cloud
a) The ring structure of benzene b) Benzene showing delocalized electrons
Benzene compose of delocalized electrons. The positions of high electron
concentrations is called para and ortho sides while that of less electrons
concentration is call meta side. When we have a side chain attached to
this side we called para, ortho or meta without putting the position in terms
of numbers. Highly electronegative elements attack benzene on the electron
rich side making it a neocloephile while the element becomes an electrophile
Para (electron rich) poo
r)
n
Or 1 o e lectro
tho
(

r t h
6 O
2
e ta
M
M
et
5 3
a
4
(e
le
ct
ro
Para
n
ric
h)
Draw structure of
orthomethylbenzene,
paramethylbenzene and
metamethylbenzene
Explain nucleophile n electrophile attacks

• Give examples
 Reactions of benzene
Normally aromatics (benzenes) are resistance to
Addition.
Since benzenes is extra stable due to its delocalized electrons
cloud, addition of any element will destabilize its electron cloud
and form a less stable product
HALOGENATION REACTION
The kind of reaction is call substitution reactions. When a halide
reacts with benzene, hydrogen is being substituted with the halide
Example
 MECHANISM
• Since benzene is electron rich, it behaves as a
nucleophile, so it can only be substituted with
an electrophile elements
• Example
• Benzene being nucleophile attacks bromine
and destabilizes the molecule and bromine
having high electron affinity attach itself in the
para and ortho position of the ring
• Do that for chlorine and iodine
 NITRATION
Benzene reacts with Nitrogendioxide in the presence of
water and sulphuric acid to form nitrobenzene
REACTION

MECHANISM

uses

Nitrobenzene is useful in the manufacture of TNT

(trinitrotuleune). Draw structure
They are use for the production of amines
 SULPHONATION
• Benzene reacts with sulphurtrioixde in the resence of
furmming suphuric acid to form benzenesulphunic acid
REACTION
mechanism
 FRIDEL-CRAFT ALKYLATION
• Benzene reacts with a haloalkane in the
presence of aluminium chloride catalyst to form
toleune or methylbenzene

REACTIONS
 Health effect of benzene
• Benzene increases the risk of cancer and other illnesses.
• Benzene is a notorious cause of bone marrow failure.
• Benzene causes anaemia, leukemia,
• Benzene causes liver, and kidney diseases
• Some women who inhaled high levels of benzene for
many months had irregular menstrual periods and a
decrease in the size of their ovaries. This can cause
infertility
• Men expose to benzene can have an effect on their
sperms chromosomes and makes them impotent
 uses
• Benzene is used mainly as an intermediate to
make other chemicals.
• Smaller amounts of benzene are used to make
rubbers and detergents. .
• Benzene is use in the production of
cyclohexane which is used to manufacture
nylon
 Test for benzene
1. Oxidation via KMnO4. Benzene will not show
positive results as it does not oxidize while methyl
benzene shows positive results and oxidizes to
benzoic acid (purple colour solution decolourizes)
2. Methylbenzene is heated under reflux with a
solution of potassium manganate(VII) made alkaline
with sodium carbonate. The purple colour of the
potassium manganate(VII) is eventually replaced by
a dark brown precipitate of manganese(IV) oxide.
3. The mixture is finally acidified with dilute sulphuric
acid. The methylbenzene is oxidised to benzoic acid.
 FUNCTIONAL GROUP
A functional group in a molecule is responsible for the
characteristic of that molecule in a reaction. The same
functional group will undergo the same characteristics
in respective of the size of the molecule
Some functional group in organic chemistry include
 ALCOHOLS ( R - OH) CnH2n+1OH
• Alcohols are hydrocarbons which one or more
hydrogen atom have been replaced by OH group
• The name for alcohols ends with – ol .
• The OH bond in alcohols makes it polar and is soluble
to water
Nomenclature of alcohols
 Types of alcohols
• There exist three types of alcohols
I. Primary alcohols (1o)
II. Secondary alcohols (2o)
III. Tertiary alcohols (3o)
o
Primary alcohol (1 )
In a primary (1°) alcohol, the carbon which carries the -OH group
is only attached to one alkyl group.

There is an exception to this. Methanol, CH3OH, is counted as a

primary alcohol even though there are no alkyl groups attached
to the carbon with the -OH group on it.
 0
Secondary alcohol (2 )
• In a secondary (2°) alcohol, the carbon with the -OH group
attached is joined directly to two alkyl groups, which may be
the same or different

Tertiary alcohols (3o)

In a tertiary (3°) alcohol, the carbon atom holding the -OH group
is attached directly to three alkyl groups, which may be any
combination of same or different.
 ISOMERISM IN ALCOHOLS
• Isomerism in alcohols begins with three or
more carbon atoms
• Ethanol has no isomer
• Write the different isomeric structures of
butanol and hexanol

• Structure of phenol or benzenol

INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLS

• Alcohols can be manufacture industrially though

• i) fermentation of carbohydrate (sugar or starch)
• Ii) fractional hydration of petroleum products
FERMENTATION
Sugar is fermented anaerobically (absent of oxygen) in
the presence of yeast to produce alcohols
formular:
 Chemical reactions of alcohols

• COMBUTION
• Alcohols are very flammable, they burn in air to release
carbondioxide and water.
• OXIDATION
• Alcohols are oxidized to carboxylic acids and water as a
byproduct
• DEHYDRATION
• Alcohols can be dehydrated to from alkenes
 Test for alcohols
• When acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2 O7) is
added to alcohol it changes it color from orange to
green and decolorizes purple color acidified
potassium permanganate
 USES OF ALCOHOLS
• Methanol is used as a solvent in paints
• Ethanol is very soluble and can dissolve many
organic solvents that do not dissolve in water
• Ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid that is
used in making vinegar
• Methanol is used as a fuel for racing cars
• Propa-2-ol is used to rub on the skin which can
cool down fever and reduce body temperature
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS (R-COOH)CnH2n + 1 COOH
• They can be produced in the laboratory by
oxidation of alcohols
• With the exception of methanoic acid whose
R or alkyl group is a H-atom

Examples of some carboxylic acids include

 Physical properties
Boiling Point
• The boiling point of carboxylic acids are governed by
their ability to form hydrogen bonds.
• The higher the size of the molecule the higher the
boiling point
REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
• REACTION WITH METALS
• Dilute ethanoic acid reacts with metals to give salt and hydrogen
gas
• REACTION WITH BASE
• They neutralizes alkalis such as sodium hydroxide to give salt
and water
• REACTIONS WITH CARBONATES
They reacts with carbonates to form salts carbondioxide and water
producing an effervescent of carbondioxide being released
This reaction is known as ESTERIFICATION
Esters are colourless liquids with sweet smell that forms an oily
layer that floats on the surface of water
 Manufacture of Ethanoic acid
• Ethanoic acids is manufactured by the
oxidation of alcohols in the presence of
acidified potassium dichromate in dilute
sulphuric acid under reflux to give ethanoic
acids
 Fatty acids
carboxylic acids are widespread in nature
Simple alky carboxylic acids, composed of four
to ten c-atoms are liquids. Fatty acids are
important biomolecule known as lipids. They
usually form long chains of carboxylic acids.
Some of the long chain carboxylic acids
include.
They are grouped into saturated and
unsaturated
 ESTERS
• Esters are derived from carboxylic acids and
alcohol. Esters comprise most naturally
occurring fats and oils, which are fatty acids
esters of glycerol. Phosphoesters form the
backbone of DNA molecules. Nitrate esters,
such as nitroglycerin, are known for their
explosive properties, while polyesters are
important plastics.
NOMENCLATURE OF ESTER
 INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE OF SOAP,
(Saponification )
Hydrolysis of ester using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
This process is known as alkaline hydrolysis of esters
If the large esters present in animal or vegetable fats and
oils are heated with concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution exactly the same reaction happens as with the
simple esters. A salt of a carboxylic acid is formed - in this
case, the sodium salt of a big acid such as stearic acid.
These salts are the important ingredients of soap - the
ones that do the cleanning. An alcohol is also produced -
in this case, propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol).Because of its
relationship with soap making, the alkaline hydrolysis of
esters is sometimes known as saponification.
 Reaction for Saponification
• The general equation is given by

• The equation for saponification is

Reaction with a benzene ring

 Hydrolysis using dilute acid or water
• The reaction with pure water is so slow that it is never used. The
reaction is catalysed by dilute acid, and so the ester is heated under
reflux with a dilute acid like dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric
acid. Here are two simple examples of hydrolysis using an acid
catalyst.
• First, hydrolysing ethyl ethanoate:

reflux

• And then hydrolysis of methyl propanoate

• reflux

• Hydrolysis is the reverse of esterification

 ETHERS
• Ether, are organic compounds with an oxygen atom
bonded to two alkyl groups. Ethers are similar in
structure to alcohols and water. Ethers important in
medicine and pharmacology, especially for use as
anesthetic. For example ethyl ether(CH3CH2−O−CH2CH3),
simply known as ether, was first used for surgical
anesthesia
 NOMENCLATURE OF ETHERS
Alkyl group Name Alkoxy name
group
CH3- Methyl CH3O- methoxy

CH3CH2- ethyl CH3CH2O- Ethoxy

(CH3)2CH- Isopropyl (CH3)2CHO- Isopropoxy

(CH3)3C– tert-Butyl (CH3)3CO– tert-Butoxy

C6H5– Phenyl C6H5O– Phenoxy
• Examples are: CH3CH2OCH2CH3, diethyl
ether (sometimes referred to as ether),
and CH3OCH2CH2OCH3, ethylene
• Ethylene oxide
• Diethyl ether {DEE}
• Dimethoxyethane {DME}
• Dimethylether{Dme}

• Dioxane {DO}
 Reactions of epoxides
• Epoxides are three-membered cyclic ethers
that are prepared from alkenes by reaction
with peracids.
• They can also be prepared by oxidation of
alkenes
AMINES
 PETROLEUM
• Petroleum comes from a greek word called
petra “ which means rock” and oleum “
which means oil”
• Petroleum simply means rock oil.
• Petroleum can be said to be the remains of
ancient marine organisms that died millions of
years ago and were buried in deep seated
rocks.
• The term hydrocarbon refers to a chemical
make-up of petroleum
• Petroleum is a mixture of atoms of hydrogen
and carbon although it contains minor atoms
like Sulphur, Nitrogen and porphyrins
(chlorophyll components of plants and blood of
animals )
• Hydrocarbons can be combine in various ways to
form many different compounds existing in the
different states of matter. Some of which
include;
• Asphalt: Hydrocarbons existing in a solid state
with a very high molecular weight
• Gasoline: Hydrocarbons existing in a liquid
state. Other examples could be diesel
• Natural gas: Hydrocarbon existing in the
gaseous state existing at room temperature
and pressure.
• The term crude oil refers to oil in its unrefine
state “crude”
 COMPONENT OF PETROLEUM
• This component is classified according to their molecular
weight.
lightiest
- methane
Natural gas - Ethane
- Propane
Butane
- Gasoline
- kerosene
- Gas oil
- Diesel oil
Crude oil - Lubricating oil
- Fuel oil
Heaviest - Lubricants and greases
- Asphalt
 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
• There are three stages to be considered to be
the origin of petroleum
I. Formation of petroleum
II. Migration of petroleum
III. Accumulation of petroleum
 FORMATION OF PETROLEUM

• There are 2 theories that explain the origin of

petroleum
1. Organic theory
2. Inorganic theory
 Organic theory
• 95% of living organism are made of organic matter. Early
marine life forms on earth primarily made of planktons were
rich and consist of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
• when living organism dies their remains are captured by the
process of erosion and sedimentation.
• Successive layering of organic rich sediment over a long
period of time say, millions of years to form shale. These
material are usually deposited in an anaerobic environment.
• Shales are organicly rich rock called the source rock
• Shale consist of 99% of clay mineral and 1% or organic
material
 Composition of shale
This is the mineral composition of shale
Hydrocarbon macturation