Constructional details – Types of rotors –winding

factors- emf equation – Synchronous reactance –

Armature reaction – Phasor diagrams of non salient
pole synchronous generator connected to infinite bus--
Synchronizing and parallel operation – Synchronizing
torque -Change of excitation and mechanical input-
Voltage regulation – EMF, MMF, ZPF and A.S.A
methods – steady state power angle characteristics–
Two reaction theory –slip test -short circuit transients -
Capability Curves
EE6504-June 2017
 Electrical Machines

Static Machines-
Rotating Machines
Transformer-

DC machines AC machines

Synchronous Asynchronous
DC Generator DC motor
machines machines

Synchronous
Synchronous motor Induction generator Induction motor
generator

EE6504-June 2017
synchronous generator
The Electrical Machine which are operated with constant
speed are called as Synchronous Machines(SM). The SM
which generates AC is called Synchronous generator or
AC generator or Alternator.
A synchronous generator is an electrical machine that
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
They are constructed in large sizes, capable of generating
500MVA or even more. (a house requires 1KVA, think how
many houses can be supplied with 500MVA Gr)
They are mainly used to generate alternating current in
power plants. Electrical supply to industries, commercial
establishments and house is taken from these power
plants.

EE6504-June 2017
1.2 Principle of
operation of
alternator.
For the operation of
alternator, excitation is
required. The exciter supplies
DC either 210V or 110V.
When DC supply is given to
the field system, the field
magnet is energized and flux
is set up, which is steady flux.
The field system is made in
motion by means of a prime
mover. The flux produced
from the field system is cut
alternatively by the field
poles, so that steady flux is
converted into change in flux.
The changed flux passes
through the airgap and links
with the stationary conductor
in the stator slots. Hence emf
is induced as per Faradays
law.

EE6504-June 2017
Fleming Right Hand
rule
Fleming Right Hand rule is
mainly applicable for electric
generator
Hold out the right hand with
the first finger, second finger
and thumb at right angles to
each other. If forefinger
represents the direction of the
line of force, the thumb points
in the direction of motion or
applied force, then second
finger points in the direction of
the induced current.

EE6504-June 2017
 .
1.3 Differences between AC&DC
generators.

AC generator
(i)Generates AC
(ii).No need for Commutator
(iii).Used for generation of
very high voltage
(iv).Mainly used in Power
generating stations
(v).Output is taken from
stator
DC generator
(i).Generates DC
(ii).Commutator is required.
(iii).Generates low voltage
(iv).used for electroplating,
battery charging.
(v).Output is taken from
rotor.

EE6504-June 2017
1.4 Advantages of revolving field and stationary
armature in alternator

(i).It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for

very high voltage, because insulation of stationary
armature is not subjected to mechanical stresses.
(ii).The load circuit can be connected directly with the
fixed terminals of the stator.
(iii).The armature winding (kept in the stator) is cooled
more easily because the stator core can be made very large.
(iv).Only 2 slip rings are required for the supply of DC to
the rotor.
(v).Due to simple ,light construction of rotor, high speed of
rotating DC field is possible. This results in increased O/P
from the machine for the given dimensions.
EE6504-June 2017
1.5 Types of
alternators.(based on
rotor construction)-

(i).Salient
pole/Projected
pole/Non-Cylindrical/R
otating field alternator.
Here, the field magnets
are kept in rotor.
Stator is provided with
1φ/3φ winding.
Operate at low speed
Used in HYDEL Power
Station.

EE6504-June 2017
EE6504-June 2017
(ii). Non-Salient
pole/Non-projected
pole/Cylindrical
alternator.
Here, field magnets are
kept in the stator. Rotor is
provided with armature
winding.
When mechanical input is
applied, the rotor rotates,
and hence it cuts the field
flux. Emf is induced in
rotor and through slip
rings, AC is taken out.
Driven by steam turbines
and gas turbines-operate at
very high speed-
Used in THERMAL
POWER STATION.

EE6504-June 2017
1.6 TYPES OF GENERATOR USED
IN POWER STATIONS:
(i).Hydro Gr(100-1000 rpm,
750MVA)
(ii).Turbo Gr(3000rpm,1000MVA)
 (iii).Engine driven (1500rpm,
20MVA)
EE6504-June 2017
1.7 Differences between the salient pole and
non salient pole type alternator.
Salient pole alternator
Medium speed
 ( 1500rpm to 100 rpm )
Used in hydel power
generating stations
Driven by water turbines
Projecting pole
Larger size
EE6504-June 2017
Non salient pole
High speed ( 3,000 rpm to
1500 rpm )
Used in thermal power
generating stations.
Driven by steam turbines
Smooth cylindrical rotor
Smaller size
1.8 Constructional details of
Alternators
(i).Stator: It is an iron
ring(cylindrical shape) having
slots on its periphery to
accommodate stator winding.
The stator core is laminated to
reduce eddy current loss. The
stator slots are of two types,
namely ,open slot and semi
closed slot. The open slots are
more commonly used ,as they
facilitate in removal and
replacement of defective coils.
But they produce ripples in the
wave form. Semi enclosed slot
types are preferred as they do
not produce ripples in the emf
waves.

EE6504-June 2017
Salient pole
alternator:
(ii).Rotor/Field magnet:The
flux required for the
generation of alternating
voltage is provided by field
magnets. They are excited by
DC source(exciter).The shaft of
the rotor is coupled to a prime
mover driving the alternator.
The DC excitation is supplied to
the rotor through 2 slip
rings/brushes.
Provided with DAMPER
winding to reduce
oscillations.Damper winding
consists of copper bars kept in
slots on the face of the pole and
they are connected to each
other.*The damper winding
also used to maintain balanced
3φ voltage under load
conditions.

EE6504-June 2017
1.9 Frequency of induced emf.

If the number of poles on rotor of an alternator is ‘p’,

then ‘p/2’ cycles of emf are completed in one
revolution. The number of cycles per second, known
as frequency, ’f’, will be equal to the product of
number of revolution made per second by the rotor.,
ie,f=p/2 x n=p/2 xN/60 , ∴PN/120--- Hz. ;
fαPNαpolesαspeed; also, N=120f/p.---(1.1).
Hence the frequency of the induced emf or current
induced in stator conductors depends on the number
of poles and speed of the rotor.
EE6504-June 2017
Problem
Example1.1.A six pole AC generator is running and
producing the frequency of 60Hz.Calculate the
revolutions per minute of the generator. If the
frequency is decreased to 20 Hz, how many number
of poles will be required, if the generator is to be run
at the same speed.
Data(i)p=6,f=60Hz.find N.
 Sol: N=120f/p=120 x60/6=1200rpm.
(ii).f=20Hz,N=1200rpm,find p
Sol:N=120f/p→1200=120 x 20/p →p=20poles.
EE6504-June 2017
Tutorial:
Tutorial 1.1.Calculate the number of poles required
for generating frequency of 50Hz using a turbine
running at (a).3000 rpm (b).1000rpm (c).300 rpm and
(d) 40 rpm.
[Ans:2,6,20,150].
T.1.2.A 60Hz,1200 rpm, alternator is running at
1000.Calculate the frequency of the induced EMF.
[Ans: For 1200 rpm, p=6;for 1000 rpm ,f=50Hz]

EE6504-June 2017
1.10. Armature winding
Concentrated winding:
 A winding with one slot per pole per phase
 Gives maximum emfs,
 Non- sinusoidal
Distributed winding:
Mostly employed.- Conductors are placed in several slots under
one pole-
Disadvantage: reduction in induced emf.
Advantages: *reduction in harmonic emfs and hence improved
waveform.
 reduction in armature reaction and hence armature reactance.
Even distribution of copper results in even distribution of Cu
loss and hence efficient cooling.

EE6504-June 2017
1.10.Armature winding
Full pitched winding:
Coil Span=one pole pitch; Coil span=180°; Pole
pitch=Distance between adjacent poles.
(iv).Short pitched winding:
Coil span.<180°.
Advantages:
(i).reduction in harmonics, improved voltage waveform.
(ii).Less copper loss due toless coil span.
(iii).Due to reduction in harmonics, eddy current and
hysteresis losses are reduced.
Disadvantages : reduction in induced emf.

EE6504-June 2017
EE6504-June 2017
1.11.Pitch factor(Kp)

Kp =emf induced in short pitched coil/emf induced in full

 pitched coil.
 =phasor sum of induced emf/arithmetic sum of
 induced emf.
Kp=Cos(α/2) ;α=short chorded angle;
α=180° X short chorded slots/(slot/pole).
Kp=1 for full pitch winding,=0.966 for short pitch winding.
An alternator has 18 slots per pole and the first coil lies in
the slots 1 and 16.Calculate the pitch factor, for
(i).fundamental (ii).3rd harmonic (iii).5th harmonic
(iii)7thharmonic.
Ans:0.966, 0.707, 0.259, 0.258.

EE6504-June 2017
1.12.Distribution factor:(Kd)
Kd=emf induced in distributed coil/emf induced in
concentrated coil.
Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2)
 Kd=1 for concentrated winding
 =0.966 for distributed winding.
Note:
m=slots per phase=slots/pole X phase.
 β= slot angle
 = 180°/ n,
 n= slots per pole
Ex.1.2.Calculate distribution factor for 36 slot, 4 pole, single layer,
3 phase winding.(Ans: Kd =0.9598)
Winding Factor, Kw = Kp Kd

EE6504-June 2017
AB,BC,CD are three coils .
For Δ, AOX,sin(mβ/2)=AX/OA; For Δ, AOY,sin(β/2)=AY/OA.
Kd=phasor sum/ arithmetic sum
=AD/mAB.=2AX/m(2AY)
=AX/mAY=OAxsin(mβ/2)/mxOA x sin(β/2)
Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2)

EE6504-June 2017
1.13. E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator
 Eα d/dt----Faraday’s law
 In one revolution (i.e., 60/N second), each stator conductor is cut by
P webers
 i.e.,d=p; dt=60/N; ∴ d/dt= P/60/N= pN/60 volts.
 Since there are Z conductors in series per phase,
 Average e.m.f./phase = pN/60 x Z volts.
 As,N=120f/p; Average e.m.f./phase = p/60 x Z x120f/p=2fZ volts.
 Form factor=RMS value/Average value=1.11=Erms/Eav.
 ∴ Erms=1.11 x Eav=2fZ x 1.11=2.22fZ volts.
 ∴Erms/phase=2.22fZ volts.---(i)
 Also, Er.m.s. / phase = 2.22(fZ)Kp Kd volts
 As Z=2T,
 Er.m.s. / phase = Eph= 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd volts.

EE6504-June 2017
 Exercise
 Ex.1.4. A 3 phase 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and
10 conductors per slot. the flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed and
the speed is 375rpm.Find the frequency, the phase and line value of induced
emf.Assume full pitched coil.[Ans: f=50Hz, E =1534 (phase)=2657(line)]

 Ex.1.5.A 3 phase,8pole,750rpm,star connected alternator has 72 slots on armature.

Each slot has 12 conductors and winding is short chorded by 2 slots. Find the
induced emf between the lines, given the flux per pole is 0.06Wb.[1741V,3016V]

 Ex:1.6.1.A 3f water wheel generator is rated at 100MVA, unity power factor,11kV,

star connected 50Hz, 120 rpm. Determine (i)The number of poles (ii)The kW
rating (iii)The current rating (iv).The input at rated kW load if the efficiency is
97%(excluding the field loss) (v)Prime mover torque applied to the generator
shaft.
 (i)p=120f/N=50. (ii).kW=KVA x cosφ =105
 (iii).Il=KVA/√3 x11=5,249A;T=Pin/2πn=8.2 x 106Nm.

EE6504-June 2017
1.14 Harmonics in voltage waveform.
non-sinusoidal waveforms/Waveforms which does not follow
the fundamental frequency
Causes Reduction of Harmonics.
 (i).Non-sinusoidal waveform of by skewing the poles
the field flux.
by chamfering the pole tips .
 (ii).Variation in the reluctance
of air-gap due to the slotting of short chording the armature
the stator core. winding by making the coil
 1.15.Rating of alternator. span less than a full pole
 Electrical machine is rated at pitch.
the load, which it can carry
by distributing the armature
without overheating &damage
to the insulation. winding.
 alternators are rated in KVA or
MVA

EE6504-June 2017
1.15 Leakage
reactance.

When current flows

through the stator
conductor, the flux is
setup, a portion of this
flux does not cross the
airgap, but complete its
path in the stator .Such
flux is known as leakage
flux. The LF sets up an
emf (self induced).The
reactance due to the LF
is called leakage
reactance(Xl)

EE6504-June 2017
1.16.Alternator on Load
When the load on the alternator is increased (i.e.,
armature current Ia is increased), the field excitation and
speed being kept constant, the terminal voltage V (phase
value) of the alternator decreases. This is due to
(i) Voltage drop IaRa where Ra is the armature resistance
per phase.
(ii) Voltage drop IaXL where XL is the armature leakage
reactance per phase.
(iii) Voltage drop because of armature reaction.
synchronous reactance Xs . Xs = XL + Xa -----Ohms.
The synchronous impedance is the fictitious impedance to
account for the voltage effects in the armature circuit
produced by the actual armature resistance(Ra),the actual
armature leakage reactance(XL) and the change in the air-
gap flux produced by armature reaction. Zs = Ra + j Xs
EE6504-June 2017
1.17. Armature Reaction in Alternator

EE6504-June 2017
1.18. Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator

Eo = √(OB)2 + (BC)2; OB = Vcos + IaRa; and BC = Vsin + IaRa

∴ Eo = √ (Vcos + IaRa)2+( Vsin+ IaXs)2.----Volts.
(All values are in phase)
EE6504-June 2017
 1.5.A 3phase, star connected alternator supplies a load of
10MW at 0.85 lagging and at 11KV.Its resistance is 0.1Ω per
phase and synchronous reactance is 0.06Ω per phase.
Calculate the line value of emf generated.
Data:3phase Y connected Alternator.MW=10; cosf=0.85(lagging);
sin=0.527,VL=11KV,Ra=0.1Ω;
Xs=0.06Ω.Find Eo.
Sol: Eo = √ (Vcos  + IaRa)2+( Vsin  + IaXs)2---Volts.
(i). IL=Q/√3VL;KVA=KW/ Cosθ=10x106/0.85=11.76x106;
IL=Q/√3VL=11.76x106/11x103=617Amp.
(ii)V=VL/√3=11x103/√3=6360V.
(iii).Eo = √ (Vcos  + IaRa)2+( Vsin  + IaXs)2
=√(6360x0.85+617x0.1)2+(6360x0.0.52+617x0.06)2=6423V
(iv).EL=√3Eph=√3x6423=11.125KV.
EE6504-June 2017
1.19. Voltage Regulation of alternator.

 The voltage regulation of an

alternator is defined as the change
in terminal voltage from no-load to
full-load (the speed and field
excitation being constant) divided
by full-load voltage.
 % Voltage regulation
 = (No load voltage -Full load voltage) X100

 Full load voltage
 %VR= (Eo-V) x100.
 V
 Note:
 (i)For leading load p.f., the no-load
voltage is less than the
 full-load voltage. Hence voltage
regulation is negative in this case.
EE6504-June 2017
Exercise-Voltage regulation
A 3 phase star connected Sol:I=75A(load)
synchronous generator is VR=21.5 %lag,-13.2% lead
rated at 1.5MVA,11KV.The For VR=0,E=V,
armature effective tan=(Ia Ra)/IaXa
resistance and
synchronous reactance are OC = √ (OA)2+(AC)2
1.2Ω and 25Ω respectively 2(OA)(AC)sin(+)
per phase.Calculate the OC=OA=V(phase)
percentage voltage =2.75,cos =0.981 lead
regulation for a load of
1.4375MVA at 0.8pf lagging
and (ii)0.8pf leading.Also
find out the pf at which
the regulation becomes
zero.

EE6504-June 2017
 1.20.Tests on Alternator-OC&SC tests.
 (i) Armature resistance test-To determine Ra[V Vs Ia]
Ra /phase is determined by using voltmeter-ammeter
(Ra = 1.5 Rdc- to account for skin effect).
 (ii) Open-circuit test-to draw OC characteristics [Eo(ph) Vs If]
 Run the alternator on no-load at the rated speed. The field current, If is
gradually increased to get rated voltage of the alternator. Draw the graph.
 (iii) Short-circuit test-to draw SC characteristics.[If Vs Isc]
 Run the alternator rated speed- short circuit the armature terminals
through ammeters .Adjust If until rated armature current Isc is obtained.
 

EE6504-June 2017
1.21. Determination of Voltage Regulation of
Alternator.
 (i). Synchronous impedance or E.M.F. method( pessimistic)
 (ii). Ampere-turn or M.M.F. method (Optimistic )
 (iii).Potier triangle or zero power factor method.
 (iv).American Standard Association(ASA) method.
 For either method, the following data are required:
 (i) Armature resistance.
 (ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.).
 (iii) Short-Circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)
 1.22. Synchronous Impedance Method(EMF method)
 (i) Plot the O.C.C. and S.S.C. on the same field current base.
 (ii) Consider a field current If. The open-circuit voltage corresponding
to this field current is E1. The short-circuit armature current
corresponding
to field current If is I1. On short-circuit p.d. = 0 and voltage E1 is being
used to circulate the short-circuit armature current I1 against the
synchronous impedance Zs.
 E1=I1Zs; Zs=E1(OC Voltage)/I1 (SC Current).

EE6504-June 2017
 1.22.Synchronous Impedance Method(EMF method)
 (iii) The armature resistance can be found as explained earlier.
 Zs = Ra + j Xs; Xs =√(Zs2 –Ra2) ---Ohms.
 Once we know Ra and Xs, the phasor diagram can be drawn for any
load and any p.f.
∴ Eo = √ (Vcos + IaRa)2+( Vsin  + IaXs)2.----Volts. (phase values)
 Drawback -pessimistic method:
 This method gives VR which is higher than
 actual value.- suitable for non-salient pole
 machines.Here the synchronous impedance is
 assumed to remain constant, while actually it is
 not. At low saturation, its value is larger because
 the effect of armature reaction is greater than that saturation. Now,
under SCconditions, saturation is very low and therefore , the value of
Zs is measured higher than in actual condition. For this reason, it is
called pessimistic method.
  

EE6504-June 2017
1.23. Ampere-Turn Method(mmf method)
It assumes the armature leakage reactance to be
additional armature reaction.
The same two tests (viz open-circuit and short-circuit
test) are required as for synchronous reactance
determination; the interpretation of the results only is
different. Under short-circuit, the current lags by 90° (R a
considered zero) and the power factor is zero. Hence the
armature reaction is entirely demagnetizing. Since the
terminal p.d. is zero, all the field AT (ampere turns) are
neutralized by armature AT produced by the short
circuit armature current.

EE6504-June 2017
Procedure for AT Method

 (i) From the O.C.C., field current OA required to produce the operating
load voltage V (=V + Ia Ra cosφ) is determined
 (ii) From S.C.C., the field current OC required for producing full-load
current Ia on short-circuit is determined.The phasor AB (= OC) is drawn
at an angle (90° + φ),i.e. OAB = (90° + φ)
 (iii) The phasor sum of OA and AB gives the total field current OB
required. The O.C. voltage Eo corresponding to field current OB on O.C.C.
is the noload e,m.f.
 %VR= (Eo-V)/V x100.
 This method gives a regulation lower
 than the actual performance of the
 machine. For this reason, it is known as
 Optimistic Method.
EE6504-June 2017
 Summary of EMF and MMF method

 (i).Synchronous impedance method:

Synchronous impedance. Zs=Eo (OC Voltage in phase )/Isc (SC Current in phase).--ohms.
 Synchronous reactance Xs = √(Zs2 –Ra2) ---Ohms.
 Emf generated ,Eo = √ (Vcos + IaRa)2+( Vsin  + IaXs)2.—Volts.(values in phase)
 % Voltage Regulation %VR= [(Eo-V)/V ] x100. (All values are in phase)
 (ii).Ampere turn method.
 If1=field current required to get normal voltage or rated voltage of alternator-stator
open circuited.
 If2=field current required to circulate full load current.- stator short circuited.
 If = √If12 + If22 +2 If1 If2cos(180-/+θ); use ‘-‘ for lagging, ‘+’ for leading pf.
θ=90+/-φ,+for lag.
 Knowing If, Eo is determined from the graph.

EE6504-June 2017
Exercises
 1.Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of alternator in which a
given field current produces an armature current of 200A on short circuit
and generated emf of 50V, on open circuit. The value of armature
resistance is 0.1Ω.To what induced voltage, must the alternator be excited,
if it is to deliver a load of 100A at pf of 0.8 lagging, with a terminal voltage
of 200V.
 2.From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation of a
2000V, 1φ,alternator delivering a current of 100A at (i)UPF (ii)0.71 lagging
(iii)0.8lead.Test results: Full load current of 100A is produced on short
circuit by a field excitation of 2.5A.An emf of 500V is obtained on open
circuit by the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8Ω.
 3. A 100kVA,3000V,50Hz, 3φ star connected alternator has an effective
armature resistance of 0.2Ω.The field current of 40A produces a short
circuit current of 200A and open circuit emf of 1040V(line).Calculate the
full load voltage regulation at 0.8 pf lagging and 0.8pf leading. Draw the
phasor diagram.

EE6504-June 2017
1.24 Potier triangle method-Zero pf method.
 Results are more accurate than emf &mmf method.
 The method is based on separation of armature leakage reactance drop & armature
reaction effect.
 Data required:(i).OC characteristics (ii)Full load Zero pf curve.
 Zero pf curve:It is a curve of terminal voltage against field current, when armature is
delivering full load current at Zero pf.ZPF is obtained with the help of connecting the
output of alternator with anyone of the following.
 (i).synchronous motor as load (ii).inductive load (iii).Three phase line with wattmeter,
voltmeter &ammeters connections at load side.
 Test procedure:
 (i).The motor coupled to the alternator is made to run at rated speed.
 (ii).Field current is adjusted to get rated voltage of alternator.
 (iii).Connect the inductive load.
 (iv).Adjust the field current to circulate full load armature current.
 (v).Adjust inductive load in steps so as to get zero pf shown by pf meter or wattmeter.
 (vi).When zero pf condition is reached, take the corresponding readings of field current
and terminal voltage.

EE6504-June 2017
 Procedure for drawing Potier triangle and finding %VR of Alternator:
 (i).By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC.(ii). Draw tangent to OCC (air gap line)
 (iii).Mark the pointsA & B.A→(Ifl,0);B→(Ifz,Vz).; where
 Ifl=field current corresponding to full load current flowing in the armature. I fz=field
current corresponding to ZPF;Vz=terminal voltage corresponding to ZPF load.
 (iv). Draw the line BH =OA.(v). Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to touch
the OCC.
 (vi). Draw DE parallel to voltage axis. Now,DE represents voltage drop IXL and BE
 represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature reaction.
 Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance.
 (vii). Find E01 using the expression √ (Vcosf + IaRa)2+( Vsinf + IaXL)2;IXL= length
DE.
 (viii) Find field current If1 corresponding to E01.;If2=length BE.
 (ix).Find If using √If12 + If22 +2 If1 If2cos(180-/+θ).Corresponding to If, find E0.
 (x).Then find %VR of Alternator.

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Potier triangle

EE6504-June 2017
1.25. Effect of Salient Poles- Two-Reactance Concept for
Salient-Pole Machines.
In a salient-pole machine, the radial length
of the air-gap varies so that reluctance
of the magnetic circuit
along the polar axis (called direct axis or
d-axis) is much less than the reluctance
along the interpolar axis (called quadrature axis or q-axis).
Xd = direct axis reactance,Xq = quadrature axis reactance
From Fig.
Iq = Ia cos(δ + φ) and Id = Ia sin(δ + φ)

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1.26.Power Developed in Salient-Pole Synchronous
Generator.

Pd= E0V/Xd x sin δ + V2(Xd-Xq)/2XdXq x sin2δ.---Watts

Power angle characteristic of alternator

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1.27.Slip test-for salient pole machines only.-
Tests to find Xd and Xq
 (i). Energise the alternator with field unexcited and driven close to
synchronous speed by a prime mover.
(ii). Measure the line voltage and line current of the alternator.
(iii). Find Xd and Xq by the following expressions
Xd=max voltage/min current. Xq=min voltage/max current.
Note:d-axis-reluctance is low-flux is more-high value of Xd;q axis-reluctance
is high,low flux,low Xq.Xd>Xq
At d axis voltmeter shows maximum reading and at q axis it shows minimum
reading.
A 3 phase star connected salient pole alternator
is driven at a speed near synchronous with field
Circuit open, and the stator is supplied from the
Balanced 3 phase supply.Voltmeter connected
across the line shows minimum and maximum reading of 2800V
&2820V.The line current fluctuated between 360A & 275A.Find the
direct axis &quadrature axis reactance per phase.Neglect armature
resistance. EE6504-June 2017
 1.28 Parallel Operation of Alternators
*The operation of connecting an alternator to the infinite busbars is
known as synchronization of alternators/parallel operation of
alternators.
 Advantages
(i).Continuity of service.
Reliability.
(ii).high efficiency.
(iii). Maintenance and repair
(iv) Load growth
Conditions for Paralleling Alternator:
Terminal voltage, frequency and phase sequence of the incoming
generator should be same as that of the busbar ( common point where
the output of all the generators connected)

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1.29. Methods of Synchronization of alternators.
 (i) By Three Lamp (one dark, two bright) method.
*The lamp L1 is straight connected between the corresponding
phases (R1 and R2) and the other two are cross-connected
between the other two phases. Thus lamp L2 is connected
between Y1 and B2 and lamp L3 between B1 and Y2.
*When the frequency and phase of the voltage of the incoming
alternator is the same as that of the busbars, the straight
connected lamps L1 will be dark while cross-connected lamps
L2 and L3 will be equally bright.
*At this instant, the synchronization is perfect and the switch of the
incoming alternator can be closed to connect it to the busbars.

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(ii).Synchroscope
 A synchroscope is an instrument that indicates by means of a revolving
pointer the phase difference and frequency difference between the
voltages of the
 incoming alternator and the busbars.
 When the frequency of the incoming alternator is equal to that of the
busbars, no torque acts on the rotor and the pointer points vertically
upwards (“12 O’ clock”). It indicates the correct instant for connecting the
incoming alternator to the busbars.

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1.30 Synchronizing current ,Power and torque.
The current, power and hence the torque developed in a
synchronous machines when they are in synchronism is
expressed as
Synchronizing power, Psy =E1Isy cos φ1 = E1Isy cos(90° - θ)
Synchronizing current,Isy =αE/2Xs.;
Psy= E1 Isy=E Isy=E (αE/2Xs)=αE2/2Xs.;α=load angle.
Synchronising torque:Tsy: 3Psy=2 πNsTsy/60.
 → Tsy=3Psy x60/2 πNs.

EE6504-June 2017
 1.31 Alternator on Infinite Busbars
 An infinite busbars system has constant terminal voltage and
constant busbars frequency because of its large size and inertia.
However, the busbars voltage can be raised or lowered by
increasing or decreasing simultaneously the field excitation of a
large number of alternators. Likewise, system frequency can be
raised or lowered by increasing or decreasing the speed of
prime movers of a
large number of alternators.

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1.32 Effect of change of field excitation,mechanical input.
Effect of change of field excitation.
An overexcited alternator operates at lagging power factor and
supplies lagging reactive power to infinite busbars. On the other
hand, an under excited alternator operates at leading power
factor and supplies leading reactive power to the infinite
busbars.
 Effect of change in mechanical input
Increasing the mechanical input power to the prime
mover will not change the speed ultimately but will
increase the power angle δ. As a result, the change of
driving torque controls the output kW and not the
kVAR. When this change takes place, the power
factor of the machine is practically not affected.

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 1.33 Capability curve of Synchronous generator.
Capability Curve is a plot of reactive power (Q) versus real
power (P).The capability curve of the synchronous generator
defines the boundary (maximum limits ) within which it can
operate safely. Various bounds imposed on the machine are:
(i).MVA- loading cannot exceed the generator
 rating.
This limit is imposed by the stator heating.
(ii).MW-loading cannot exceed the turbine
rating which is given by MVA.
(iii).The generator must operate a safe margin away from the
steady state stability limit.
(iv).The maximum field current cannot exceed a specified value
imposed by rotor heating.
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