A Teaching Material

for the course

wildlife and Ecotourism professional ethics

Prepared by:
Shewalem Taffese

SEMPTEMPER 2019;2022
BAHIR DAR University 1
 LECTURE OUTLINE

By the end of the lecture, the student should

know:
 Definition of ethics
 Understand between ethics and morals

 Definition of Ethical Dilemmas.

 Criteria used in ethical standards.

 Introduction to Ethics
What does an ethic mean to you?

 "Ethics has to do with what my feelings tell me is right or

wrong.“

Ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong

that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of

rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness……...

•Some years ago, sociologist Raymond Baumhart asked

business people, "What does ethics mean to you?" Among their

replies were the following:

 "Ethics has to do with what my feelings tell me is right or

wrong.“
 "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs.“
"Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs."

"Being ethical is doing what the law requires."

"Ethics consists of the standards of behavior

our society accepts."

 Coun….
• Ethics is two things.
 First, ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong
that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of
rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness.
 Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of
honesty, compassion, and loyalty. And, ethical standards
include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the
right to freedom from injury
Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of

one's ethical standards. Such like feelings, laws, and

social norms can deviate from what is ethical.

rules of behavior based on ideas about what is morally

good and bad.

 
 
 an area of study that deals with ideas about what is good and
bad behavior : a branch of philosophy dealing with what is
morally right or wrong
• Today it is common to separate ethics into
three sub-branches:
 1. descriptive ethics,
 2. metaethics and
 3. normative ethics:
 Ethics in wildlife
What should we protect when managing and conserving wildlife?
 Expanding human demands on land, sea and fresh water,
along with the impacts of climate change, have made the
conservation and management of wild areas and wild animals
a top priority.
 But there are many different reasons for thinking that such
conservation is important,
 Wild animals have always been a critical resource for human
beings.
 Historically, food, fur, and leather were key to human survival .
 more recently; wildlife has assumed high economic and cultural
significance.
 Wild animals provide entertainment in , zoos, and wildlife
parks, they form a central attraction in international tourism .
Equally, wild animals can be seen as
threatening to human beings;
 for instance, they can be sources of new
human diseases (zoonotics), and they can
damage or consume human crops.
 What matters here, whether as resource or
threat, is how useful.
 Moral and ethical standards

• Ethics vs Morals: Is there a difference?

 Morals is derived from a Greek word “Mos” which means custom.
• On the other hand, if we talk about Ethics, it is also derived from a
Greek word “Ethikos” which means character.
• Also Ethics and morals are both used in the as
synonyms, but there is some distinction in how
they are used.
• Morals often describes one's particular values
concerning what is right and what is wrong:
 Ethics can refer broadly to moral principles, one often sees it
applied to questions of correct behavior within a relatively
narrow area of activity:
 Ethical standard refers to standard principles that encourage
the greater values of trust, fairness and benevolence.
 Ethical standards may refer to responsibilities for some
professionals.
 E specially in everyday language, the distinction between the terms
‘ethics’ and ‘morality’ is not always clear.
 Even in some philosophical texts both are used synonymously, while
others seem to draw a clear distinction between them.
 Historically, the term ‘ethics’ comes from Greek ethos which means
the customs, habits and
 mores of people Morality’ is derived from Latin mos, moris which
denotes basically the same; it was introduced by Cicero as an
equivalent to the Greek ethos
. ‘. For the sake of clarity we assume as a standard
definition that :
 morality means the customs, the especial do-s and don't-
s that are shared and widely accepted as standard in a
society or community of people — accepted as a basis of
life that doesn't have to be rationally questioned.
 Ethics on the other hand is the philosophical reflection
upon these rules and ways of living together, the customs
and habits of individuals, groups or mankind .
 Definition of Ethical standards

 Ethical standards vary based on industry and a person's own

moral compass.
 Different industries have ethical standards that determine how
a person must act in order to be respected within the field.
 Those who work in medical and financial fields often have
more strict ethical standards and guidelines than other
professionals
 GENERAL ETHICAL STANDARDS
 Not engage in activities that harm the members’ organizations,
clients or profession or knowingly bring the profession into
disrepute.
 Not engage in activities that conflict with their fiduciary, ethical
and legal obligations to their organizations, clients or profession.
 effectively disclose all potential and actual conflicts of interest;
such disclosure does not preclude or imply ethical impropriety
 Present and supply products and/or services honestly and
without misrepresentation.
 Establish the nature and purpose of any contractual relationship
at the outset and be responsive and available to parties before,
during and after any sale of materials and/or services.
 Never knowingly infringe the intellectual property rights of
other parties.
 Defining Ethical Dilemmas

 An ethical dilemma is not designed to be an easy choice. In

fact, there is often no wrong answer when dealing with an
ethical dilemma.
 As an example, imagine you were the principal of your school
and had to decide whether to use a limited set of funds to
continue either the honors program or the program for at-risk
students..
 academic misconduct, secrecy

Academic misconduct (bad bevaeir) is a very sensitive issue

 Since childhood parents instill good virtues such as don’t lie,
don’t cheat, don’t misuse and don’t break trust amongst other
morals.
Academic integrity is fundamentally against all the principles
we were brought up on, then why is it so common?
 Count…
Is it partly because we don’t categorize plagiarism as cheating or is it

because of the prevalent occurrences: that everybody does it so why not

me?

The answers vary depending on type of dishonesty, for example

deliberate deception when using a person’s different ideas or words

without acknowledgment should be far greater offense than students

working on a homework assignment who don’t realize they are indulging

in misconduct.
• Individual assignment
• Animal welfare and animal rights.
Introduction to wildlife welfare
 The importance of animal welfare Animals are used
for a variety of things.
 Why should society be concerned about their
welfare in the first place? One argument is that
humans have a moral obligation to care for animals
because many domesticated animals and animals
in captivity depend on humans for their survival.
 Humans have depend on animals (non-human
animals) for survival and have used animals for
different purposes for thousands of years
 . Today, animals continue to be bred and used
for various purposes, such as food, fiber,
medicine, research, companions, service
animals and pets, to name a few.
 Many people will argue that it is only right
that humans care for animals
 For animals that are used to produce food,
animal welfare is linked with animal health
and productivity, in some cases.
 If an animal’s welfare is poor, the animal will
not grow as well or produce as well.
 For example, an animal that is sick or injured is
not going to grow at the same rate as a
healthy animal..
However, it is important to note that an animal
that is productive and growing is not necessarily
in a good state of welfare.
 Animals can continue to be productive and grow
even if their welfare is poor. For example, laying
hens have been selectively bred to be very
efficient at producing eggs, and a hen will
continue to lay an egg almost every day even if it
is injured.
 Animals that are sick or injured can
pose(attitude) food safety risks.
 How we treat and care for animals?
While it is true that the manner in which we
treat(give) animals does affect their welfare,
animal welfare is not defined as the treatment an
animal receives.
Rather, animal welfare refers to how an animal is
coping with its environment and living conditions.
Animal welfare can vary from poor to good, along a
range (field).
. Animal welfare changes over time, and in some
cases from moment to moment.
 . To understand what animal welfare is, it is helpful
to examine some definitions.
 In 1986, Donald Broom defined animal welfare as
the ability of an animal to cope with its
environment and living conditions.
 Since then, organizations such as the American
Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA, 2017) and
World Organization for Animal Health (OIE, 2020)
have incorporated this explanation into their
definitions of animal welfare,
 . Most people who have a basic understanding of animal
welfare are familiar with the Five Freedoms
 (1. Freedom from hunger and thirst.

 2. Freedom from discomfort.

 3. Freedom from pain, injury or disease

 . 4. Freedom to express normal behavior. 5. Freedom from

fear and distress. (FAWC, 1979).
N, The Five Freedoms were developed by the Farm Animal
Welfare Council in the United Kingdom
wildlife Welfare denotes the desire to prevent
unnecessary wildlife suffering.
 Welfare is specific to animal life and excludes
plants.
 Animal rights denotes the philosophical belief
that animals should have rights, including the
right to live their lives free of human intervention
(and ultimate death at the hands of humans)
 Welfare v Conservation
 The key difference between conservation and animal welfare
is that conservation cares about species (and extinction)
whereas animal welfare cares about the individual animal (and
its suffering).
 Animal welfares belief that each individual animal has an
intrinsic(basic) value, and should be respected and protected.
 Care for conservation can be generated by human-centered
objectives, such as not wanting species to become extinct
because of the loss for future generations (of humans).
 Animal Welfare Principles

• Good animal welfare is measured by fitness and a sense of well-

being.

Five Freedoms:

Freedom from hunger or thirst with access to fresh water and an

appropriate diet to maintain full health

Freedom from discomfort by providing an appropriate environment

including shelter and a comfortable resting area

Freedom from pain, injury, or disease by treating animals respectfully

and providing prompt access to veterinary care

 Freedom to express normal behavior by providing sufficient
space, proper facilities, and allowing for company of the animal’s
own kind.

 Freedom from fear and distress by ensuring conditions and

treatment which avoid mental suffering.
veterinary treatment) to cure illness/disease and freedom from fear
and distress (that may
be caused by the handling and procedure).
 Needs

The term ‘needs’ is often used in debates on welfare.

 needs are the things that should be provided to ensure an animal’s

welfare.

 A need is: ‘A requirement, fundamental in the biology of the animal,

to obtain a particular resource or respond to a particular

environmental or bodily stimulus.’ environmental enrichment.

 For animals under our care it is a human ethical responsibility to

provide for their needs.

 Different needs have different levels of importance to animals.

 Needs may include a range of requirements such as
 food
 water
 comfort
 avoidance of infectious disease
 and Physical (fitness)
 Mental (feelings)
 Naturalness
 early infections Fear
 anxiety Restrict natural behavior
Sentience
There is now widespread recognition of the ‘sentience’ of animals, which
reinforces the need to protect welfare.
The European Union has officially recognized animals to be ‘Sentient
Beings’ (1997).
Sentience implies that animals: -
 Are aware of their own surroundings
 Have an emotional dimension
 Are aware of what is happening to them

 Have the ability to learn from experience

 Chapter 3
ANIMAL HANDLING AND RESTRAINT

 Proper restraint and handling techniques are essential for reducing

stress to laboratory animals and the handler. 
 Animals become much easier to handle if they are trained(skilled)
and accustomed (habituated) to handling. ).
 The handler must know where and how to grasp the animal. When
restraining an animal by hand, the force applied and technique
should be appropriate for the species in question.
 Prolonged, stressful restraint should not be performed.
 Other forms of restraint (e.g. anaesthesia) may be more suitable to
help prevent injury to the animal and handler.
 Maintaining hygiene is very important and precautions must be
taken to prevent the risk of cross infection between animals and from
animals to humans.
 Sick or injured animals require higher hygiene considerations due to
the possibility of zoonosis.
 Personnel must take precautions to minimise the risk of disease
transmission to protect themselves, their families and the public.
 Animal Handling Skills-Professionalism and Safety

 Learn how to properly handle animals.

 Being professional means being SAFE and HUMANE.
 Good animal handling skills prevent staff from being
injured.
 Good animal handling skills reduce stress for the animal.
• Safe and effective animal handling requires a thorough
understanding of the normal behavior and responses of
each species
Using personal protection equipment.

 Long sleeve clothing: to reduce the risk of cuts and scratches to the
arms and legs.
 Goggles/face mask/safety glasses: to protect eyes from animals with
long beaks (e.g.
storks) or animals which secrete substances (e.g. cane toad) etc.
 Gloves (leather): can be useful for animals with sharp claws, teeth
and spines or
venom glands. Their use is a personal choice as they can decrease
tangible sensation.
Ear plugs: can protect ears in situations where personnel are
exposed to
loud/excessive noise for long periods of time (e.g. working with
cockatoos).
 • Utilizing as many people as required to safely restrain an
animal with minimal stress.
• Limiting the time the animal is restrained.
 Using alternatives methods of restraint (e.g. anaesthesia) if an
animal is excessively resisting
 Calving process
The fetus starts the calving process by initiating a force of
hormones.

 Briefly, when the fetus grows to a stage when uterine space

becomes limited, the fetus becomes stressed and produces a hormone
called cortisol (“stress hormone”) that leads to several hormonal
changes in the cow’s placenta, stimulating stretching of pelvic
ligaments, uterine contraction, cervix dilatation, and consequent
delivery.

Therefore, the fetus actually determines when it will be born.

Calving assistance

The first step to a successful calving assistance is recognizing a normal

calving.

calf is normally presented the vast majority of animals will give birth
without assistance.

 Most calves lost at birth are anatomically normal but die because of
injuries or suffocation resulting from difficult or delayed calving.

Therefore, knowing when and how to provide assistance highly

determines the number of viable calves produced within cattle operations.

Special attention should be provided to first-calf heifers, given that less

than 2% of calving difficulties occur in mature cows.
 Preparation for Calving

 The dam should be placed into a clean, well-lighted pen.

 Having the correct facilities and
equipment available at calving time can mean the
difference between a dead or alive calf.
 Always make sure all the equipment is clean and
sanitized between cows.
•. The following equipment should always be available at calving
time:

 Plastic sleeves.
 Lubricant.
 Common disinfectant - chlorhexidine (Novalsan®) or iodine
(Betadine®).
In addition to the equipment, some pharmaceuticals should also be
available to aid the calf and/or the cow after the calving process.
Some of the pharmaceuticals will require a prescription.
For the calf:
 • Dopram® - 1 cc squirted into the nose to stimulate breathing.
 • Tincture of iodine 7% - to dip the navel (desiccant and
disinfectant)

For the cow:

 • Oxytocin® – 2-5 cc (20-100 IU) after calving only to stimulate
uterine contraction and avoid prolapse.

 It is very important not to administer while the calf is inside the

uterus, or the uterus will clamp around the calf and make delivery
even more difficult.

 • Antibiotic – follow your veterinarian’s advice on which antibiotic

 Animal behavior

Animal behavior refers to the activities animals perform during their lifetime,
 including
 locomotion,
 feeding,
 breeding,
 capture of prey,
 avoidance of predators, and social behavior.
Animals send signals, respond to signals or stimuli, carry out maintenance
behavior, make choices, and interact with one another.
 Approaches to Animal Behavior

 One approach to the study of animal behavior is comparative

psychology.
 Comparative psychologists emphasize studies of the genetic,
neural, and hormonal bases of animal behavior.
 Psychologists conduct experimental studies, in both
laboratory and field settings, that relate to animal learning and
to the development of behavior.
Ethology is the study of nimal behavior that focuses on
evolution and the natural environment.
Ethologists observe the abehavior of a variety of
animals in their natural environments and study the
behavior of closely related species to consider the
evolution and origin of certain behavior patterns.
Ethologists rarely deal with learning and are interested
instead in animal communication, mating behavior, and
social behavior.
Behavioral ecology emphasizes the ecological aspects of animal
behavior.
Predator-prey interactions, foraging strategies, reproductive
strategies, habitat selection, intraspecific and interspecific
competition, and social behavior are topics of interest to behavioral
ecologists.
Sociobiology is the study of the evolution of social behavior. It
combines many aspects of ethology and behavioral ecology.
Sociobiologists emphasize the importance of natural selection on
individuals living in groups.
 Loading and Unloading

Under best practice, animals are loaded and unloaded for transit in a
manner that minimizes stress. The process of being moved, especially
if it involves a loading chute, is a potentially stressful experience to
many animals. In best practice, three measures are taken to minimize
stress:

(1) Train animal caretakers in proper loading and unloading practices,

(2) Properly locate and design loading areas, and,

 (3) Minimize the number of directional changes an animal must

take.
 Animal caretakers observe proper loading densities and plan to load or
unload animals at the time of day that is best for moving the animals.
 Animals grouped together for the first time are not to be crowded. In
best practice, sufficient labor and appropriate equipment and/or
facilities (i.e. ramps) are available for loading or unloading animals.
 Sick or injured animals require special handling.
 In best practice, marketing decisions are made in a timely manner
such that the animals are fit for transport.
 Non-ambulatory animals or animals that are so weak or debilitated
that they are likely to go down during transit are treated or euthanized
on-farm.
 Unloading

After arrival of the cattle at the slaughterhouse, the course of

unloading was assessed.
 The unloading was scored on way of parking;

 the behavior of animals on the truck and the behavior when animals
were leaving the truck;
 the use of devices to force animals to move
• Eg ., flags, electric cattle prods and sticks; the
manner in which these devices are used i.e.,
gentle (soft, with a soft touch, just to
persuade), intense (stronger than before, but
without damaging) or rough (rude, with
excessive force, causing damage); the number
of people that were involved unloading the
cattle and the use of hard shouts and hard
sounds.
 Behavior was scored and considered nervous if there were one or
more animals vocalizing repeatedly, running, and/or jumping.
 The use of devices to force animals to move i.e., flags, electric cattle
prods, and sticks; the way these devices are used i.e., gentle if these
were used only as a touch and less than five times, intense if they
were used between 5 and 10 times and rough if the devices were used
more than ten times and in a hard way per load.
 The use of sticks usually meant handling a flag as a stick by turning it
around or a stick.
 Shouts were considered used if a person handling the cattle used
their voice loudly to urge on cattle.
 Animals that are Unfit for Transport

Although it is not possible to provide a complete list of all

conditions that will make an animal unfit for transport,
any animal suffering from one or more of the following
conditions is very unlikely to be fit for any journey.
 Any condition causing weight loss (particularly chronic
weight loss).
 Any condition of the digestive system causing repeated
vomiting or
diarrhoea.
 Any condition causing breathing difficulties.

 Any condition obviously affecting the normal walking of the animal.

 Any condition that prevents an animal from eating or drinking.

 Any condition making the animal depressed, nervous or aggressive.

 Any condition causing wasting (emaciation) or a temperature (fever).

• Animals suffering from any infectious disease should not be transported

• Animals that are injured or present physiological weaknesses or

pathological processes shall not be considered fit for transport.

 Vision, reaction to noise, flight zone, natural
circling

Introduction

 An understanding of the behavior of livestock will facilitate handling,

reduce stress, and improve both handler safety and animal welfare.
 Reducing stress on animals has been demonstrated to improve productivity
and prevent physiological changes that could confound animals.
 Restraint, electric prods and other handling stresses lowered conception
rates.
 Transportation and restraint stress reduced the immune function in animals
 Vision and Livestock Motion

 Livestock have wide angle vision. Cattle and pigs have a visual field in excess
of 300 degrees. In sheep, the visual field ranges from 191 to 306 degrees
depending on the amount of wool on the head.
 Loading ramps and handling chutes should have solid side walls to prevent
animals from seeing distractions outside the chute with their wide angle
vision.
 Moving objects and people seen through the sides of a chute can cause balking
or frighten animal. S
 olid side walls are especially important if animals are not completely tame or
they are unaccustomed to the facility.
 Blocking vision will stop escape attempts.
 This is why a solid portable panel is so effective for handling
animals.
 In areas where animals are handled, light should be uniform and
diffuse.
 Shadows and bright spots should be minimized.
 Slats on the floor of shearing sheds and other animal facilities,
should be eliminated so animals walk across the slats.
 Flapping objects or a coat hung on a chute fence may stop animal
movement.
 Handling facilities should be painted one uniform color.
 All species of livestock are more likely to balk at a sudden change in
color or texture
Noise
Livestock producers and researchers have learned from practical
experience that continuous playing of a radio with a variety of talk
and music will reduce the reaction of pigs to sudden noises.
Providing controlled amounts of continuous but varying
background sound may help prevent weight gain losses caused by
unexpected noises.
 In facilities where wild animals are handled, loud or novel noises
should be avoided because they distress livestock.
 Research is needed to determine if exposing animals to sounds
such as truck noise would help reduce stress.
 the pump and motor on a hydraulic squeeze chute should be
located away from the squeeze
Overcrowding in pens

Overcrowding is defined as the coexistence of individuals in an

overly confined space.

 In rats, overcrowded living conditions leads to changes in physical

and psychologic health.

Overcrowding in pigs forms a potential risk for the health and

therefore the welfare of the animals.

 respiratory disease due to reduced hygiene and air quality when

stocking densities are high might occur,
 Techniques for manually restraining the Wildlife

Personnel must be aware and experienced in proper restraint

techniques for the species they are handling and be able to respond to
different situations that may arise when dealing with struggling and
stressed animals.

If hand restraint is not possible due to excessive struggling which

compromises the health of the animal or risks of injury to the handler or
animal other forms of restraint (e.g. anaesthesia) should be applied or the
restraint aborted.
The following methods were the major methods to restrain
animals.

Verbal restraint

 Many dogs know some commands or can at least recognize

authority, even if the command is unfamiliar.
 Commands such as SIT, STAY, COME, DOWN, NO or even
HEEL may be useful tools to encourage a dog to cooperate
 Physical restraint: tools and equipment

Leash: The most common tool used to handle animals in the

clinic is the leash. Placed around a dog's neck it normally
controls even the largest dog. In the event a dog refuses to
cooperate with a leash carry him

Your hand:

A very effective form of restraint, your hands are sensitive to

the amount of pressure that is being exerted on the animal and
can be quickly modified to the situation. Hands can be used to
gently stroke a dog or to firmly grasp a struggling cat.
 Towels:

A towel or blanket is a very useful tool for cats and small dogs. A
towel can be used to decrease an animal’s arousal by covering the head
and body and can help protect from sharp claws.

Nets:

The net is the primary tool used to handle fractious cats or wildlife. It
allows for the safe handling and transfer of even the most aggressive
small mammal. Effective use of the net requires some training and
practice.
Drugs:

For animals that are too aggressive or stressed to handle safely for
procedures, sedation and/or general anesthesia may be necessary to
allow treatment.
 Ethical Considerations to reduce the level of impact of hand restraint
on the welfare of animals there are a `number of ethical
considerations that should be addressed.
 DEC projects involving hand restraint of wildlife will require
approval from the DEC Animal Ethics Committee and where
appropriate
the following ethical considerations must be adequately covered in
any application for approval to undertake research involving
vertebrate animals

Handling time

Hand restraint is stressful for animals and so it is essential that

handling time is kept to a minimum.

Animals should be transferred into holding bags as soon as possible.

 Biomedical procedures of wild animals

Factors to Consider before Specimen Collection Specimens

are used to provide supporting information leading to the
determination of the cause of disease or death in wildlife.

 Commonly used specimens for wildlife disease

investigations include intact carcasses, tissues from carcasses,
euthanized or moribund animals, parasites, ingested food,
feces, or environmental samples
Samples from live animals or the environment (e.g.,
contaminated feed) in the same vicinity as a mortality
event also may be helpful.

The type of specimen collected is determined by

availability of samples and biological objectives.

Samples from live animals may be more

appropriate
. Samples from live animals may include collections of
blood, hair, feathers, feces, or ectoparasites, or samples
obtained by swabbing lesions(cuts) or orifices (by opening
the jaw,lips,vents….).

Photographs and videos are useful additions for recording

field and clinical signs and conveying conditions at the site.

Collection of environmental samples (e.g., feces, water,

feed, or soil) may be appropriate when animals cannot be
captured for sampling or the disease agent may persist in the
environment.
Wildlife Specimen Collection, Preservation, and
Shipment

Prior to collecting samples, it is important to

determine the capabilities and submission criteria of
the laboratory receiving the samples.

Diagnostic laboratories have specific requirements

regarding preparation, labeling, and shipping of
samples.
 basic necropsy kit that can be packed into a small day pack.
Clockwise, from top of photo:

 Data recording: field notebook, tags, pencils, markers.

 Protective apparel: rubber gloves, disposable shoe covers and coveralls

mask.

 Necropsy equipment: disinfectant for cleaning instruments, scrub

brush, heavy shears, forceps, scissors, scalpel handle and blades.

 Measuring equipment: hanging scale and ruler.

 Sampling materials: microscope slides, syringes, needles, swabs, blood

tubes, aluminum foil, plastic bags, wide mouth plastic jars.

 Preservatives: ethanol for parasites, formalin for tissue samples.

 Dehorning Defined

Dehorning of horned cattle is the process of removal of their horns or

the process of preventing their growth.

Dehorning should only be done when necessary and in accordance

with the  Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Cattle to
minimise the risk to the welfare of the cattle, particularly pain and
distress.

A polled animal is one that grew no horns or one that was dehorned.
Disbudding by chemical or hot-iron .
• Dehorning is not recommended when an
animal is in poor condition, or if it has other
health problems. In this case the animal should
be dehorned when it is in better
health/condition as it will heal more quickly.
 Reasons for Dehorning
₰Advisors commonly recommend dehorning young calves to:

 reduce the risk of injury and bruising to herd mates

 require less space at the feed bunk and in transit

 decrease risk of injury to farm workers, horses and dogs

 decrease risk of death, illness and setback by dehorning young

calves versus older calves

 Cont…
gain a price advantage by offering hornless cattle at
auction
produce docile cattle that are easier to handle
decrease aggressiveness at the feed bunk
enhance on-farm safety for animals, producers and
employees
facilitate easier use of handling facilities
 Hygiene

 Good hygiene (facilities, hands, handling and instruments)

is very important to prevent infection after dehorning.
Disinfectant should be used and changed frequently.

 Muddy and dusty yards, wet days, dirty equipment, high

fly activity are all factors which lead to infection.

 All equipment should be cleaned thoroughly after use.

 Factors consider during animal
dehorning:
Age

The younger the animal at the time of dehorning, the better

it is for the animal and the easier the job for the operator.

There is less pain and stress for the animal and there is less
risk of infection or fly strike the smaller and younger they
are, particularly if they are going back to their mothers.

 Smaller animals are also much easier to handle and

Removing horns from older cattle, yearlings and
adults is time consuming, painful for the animal and
increases the chances of a setback.

 It is not recommended to dehorn animals over 12

months of age unless undertaken by a veterinarian
and is illegal in some states and territories.
Many producers choose to dehorn new-born calves
because:

 techniques are easier for the operator

 dehorning is less stressful on newborn calves
 of concerns for animal welfare
 There is less risk with dehorning of young (less than
eight weeks) calves
 Horns and Their Growth

Horns are the pairs of hard, bonelike, permanent

growths projecting from the heads of animal..

 They grow from a unique area of skin cells at the

base of the horn.

At about two months of age, horns become attached to

the frontal bone of the skull.
 Choice of Dehorning Methods
Several methods for disbudding cattle exist, but each method has its
advantages and disadvantages.

 The choices of dehorning techniques range from genetic to surgical.

The risks to the calf and the operator vary with each technique.

Many producers choose to dehorn new-born calves because the

techniques are easier for the operator, less stressful on the calves and
they demonstrate concern for the animals' welfare. Here are the
common dehorning methods.
a. The dehorning knife
 Cont…
 The dehorning knife has a curved blade designed to remove about
1 cm of skin around the horn bud.
 It is ideal for calves (up to 2-3 months of age) with a mobile horn
bud i.e. not attached to the skull.
 The knife must be kept sharp.
  The dehorning knife will give excellent results with practice. 
 Dehorning calves with a knife minimizes tissue damage and
avoids exposing the sinus cavity.
 a. Chemical Dehorning

•Caustic chemicals will prevent the growth of horns when properly applied to the horn buds of new-born (less than one to three
weeks of age) calves. The chemical destroys the horn-producing cells around the horn bud. The chemicals are available as sticks or
dehorn pastes. Dehorning paste is a caustic chemical applied to horn buds to destroy horn-producing cells. To protect yourself, wear
gloves when applying the chemicals. To protect the calf, avoid application near its eyes. Do not use caustics in rainy weather.
• 
Technique

 Administer sedation, analgesia and local anaesthetic.

 Expose the horn bud (about the size of a 5-cent piece) by pushing

the hair back

 Apply the caustic to the horn button. Use a wooden applicator.

Apply a thin layer.

 Re-position the hair over the paste and horn bud - i.e., cover the

horn bud.
 Cont…

Advantages and Disadvantages

 performed at a young age with less stress than

some other techniques

 bloodless

 use in any season

 Cont….

 painful without anaesthesia

 avoid contact with eyes; operator should wear

gloves

 do not use in rainy weather

 Hot Iron Dehorning

Hot iron dehorners are available in versions heated by a furnace or

fire, 12-volt battery, 120-volt electricity, power packs.

The head of the iron is a hollow circle and it fits over the horn bud.

Proper application of the hot iron will destroy the horn-producing

skin at the base of the horn.

This technique works well for calves up to 12 weeks old. There are
several sizes of dehorning irons.

 The proper size is one where the burner makes a complete ring
•Technique

1. Administer sedation, analgesia and local anaesthetic.

2. Preheat the dehorning iron to a red colour. Both electric

and gas irons work best when they are "red" hot.

3. Wear gloves to protect your hands.

4. Hold the calf's ear out of the way to keep it from being

burned.
• Place the tip of the burner over the horn and apply
slight pressure. When the burning hair begins to
smoke, slowly rotate the dehorner by twisting
your wrist. Continue the application of heat for
10-15 seconds.

Figure 1. An electric hot-iron dehorner will destroy the horn-producing skin at the base of
the horn bud.
Advantages and Disadvantages

 bloodless

 can be used at any time of the year

 young calves up to 12 weeks of age

 unreliable when done incorrectly, leads to scurs (partial

horn growth)

 requires expertise - pain control and technique

 
Veterinary care needs after dehorning

Animals bleed freely after dehorning. This is normal and helps to

clean the wound. However, bleeding should be minimised by selecting
the appropriate dehorning tool, preventing overheating of calves.

Fly strike is a problem when animals have an open wound but if

dehorning is carried out in a hygienic manner, wounds heal up
quickly. Do not apply an insecticide straight on the wound, but rather
around the wound. Wound disinfectants can be applied to the wound
to reduce infection risks.

Avoid leaving animals in the yard after dehorning.

Put dehorned stock onto good nutrition.

 Chapter 4: Animal welfare and Animal Bio-technology 
Animal biotechnologies
 

 Biotechnology is the use of engineering and biological science.

 concepts to develop new goods from biologically derived basic

materials,
 such as vaccines or food.
 another way, it’s the utilization of living organisms or their products
to alter or improve human health and the environmen
 Biotechnology provides new tools for improving human health and
animal health and welfare and increasing livestock productivity.
 Biotechnology improves the food we eat - meat, milk and eggs.

 Biotechnology can improve an animal’s impact on the environment.

And biotechnology enhances ability to detect, treat and prevent
diseases.
 Just like other assisted reproduction techniques such as artificial
insemination, embryo transfer and in vitro fertilization, livestock
cloning improves animal breeding programs allowing farmers and
ranchers to produce healthier offspring, and therefore producer
healthier, safer and higher quality foods more consistently.
• There are different kinds of efficient animal
biotechnological techniques:
• 1. cloning
• 2. Embryo Transfer
• 3. Genetic engineering

• 5. Artificial Insemination
 Animal cloning

Cloning

derived from the Greek word klōn, meaning a twig.

Its original use in English was to describe asexually
produced progeny.
means to make a copy of an individual.
“Clone” was later adopted into the parlance of
modern cellular and molecular biology to describe
groups of identical cells, and replicas of DNA and
other molecules.
Ŀ A clone is an organism that is descended from —
and is genetically identical to — a single common
ancestor.
Ŀ Cloning involves making genetically identical
copies of a plant or animal, using asexual
reproduction.
Ŀ Many common fruits and vegetables (e.g., pears,
apples, oranges and potatoes) are clones.
Ŀ . Animals can be cloned by two different methods:
mechanical embryo splitting or nuclear transfer.
 Embryo splitting involves bisecting the multi-cellular
embryo at an early stage of development to generate clones
or “twins.”
 A 32-cell embryo, for example, might be bisected into two
16-cell twins.
 This type of cloning occurs naturally (human identical
twins result from this process, but fraternal twins do not),
but it can also be performed in a laboratory where it has
been successfully used to produce clones from a number of
different animal species.
 This technique was first used in agriculture to replicate
valuable dairy breeding animals in the 1980s
π This method has a practical limitation in cattle and
sheep in that a maximum of four clones can be
produced from each embryo.
π Cloning can also be done by nuclear transfer, where
the genetic material from the nucleus of one cell is
placed into a “recipient” unfertilized egg that has had
its genetic material removed by a process called
enucleation.
π In order to begin the development process, the donor
nucleus must be fused with the egg through the
administration of a brief electrical pulse or a chemical
fusion process, after which the embryo starts to divide
as if it had been fertilized.
• In the case of mammals, the embryo is then
placed into a surrogate mother where it will
develop until birth, at which point it will be
delivered in the same way as any newborn.
 Biotechnology and Animal welfare

Biotechnology can be good for animals.

 Selective breeding and genetic engineering can benefit animals in many
ways.
 Genetic engineering certainly has the potential to improve the welfare
of farm animals.
 Decreasing mortality
 by increasing resistance to diseases or parasites, or decreasing
responses to ingestion of toxic plants, are obvious examples of welfare
benefits, and an area in which some transgenic research is focused.
 Breeding to remove characteristics that cause injury
 e. g selecting cattle without horns
 But biotechnology can also be bad for animals - the good effects for
the breeder can offset by painful side-effects for the animals.

 The following animal welfare aspects of transgenic and cloning

technologies: their potential to cause pain, distress (both physical and
psychologic), behavioral abnormality, physiologic abnormality,
and/or health problems; and, conversely, their potential to alleviate or
to reduce these problems.
 Both the effects of the technologies themselves and their likely
ramifications were addressed.
 Bovine Somatotropin

•The use of bovine somatotropin (BST) to increase

milk yield .
•Currently banned in Europe even for experimental
studies.
•dairy cattle in 1993 because testing had revealed no
concerns regarding consumer safety.
now is widely used throughout the U.S.
dairy industry, where milk production can be increased as
much as 30 percent in well managed, appropriately fed
herds, without adversely affecting the quality of the milk.
The BST, which is almost indistinguishable in sequence
from the natural hormone, is present in low concentrations
in milk,
 but has no biologic activity in humans.

@The level of IGF-1, the hormone induced by BST, is somewhat

elevated but within the “physiologic range” for cows and is probably
digested along with other milk proteins in the adult stomach,
although it might have biologic activity in the intestine of neonates
@The greatest concerns about BST are probably in the area of animal
welfare.
@ High-yield milking cows show a greater incidence of mastitis than
lower-producing cows, but studies have shown that mastitis is not
exacerbated by BST administration.

£ to breed heifers only once and then to sustain milk
production for as long as 600 days by using BST.
£ Lengthening lactation via BST in second calf and older
cows is a larger contributor to having fewer calves per
lifetime in the herd than first-calf heifer
£ The result has been a shortage of replacement heifers for
producers, since only one calf is born during the milking
life of the animal .
Embryo Transfer
 What is an Embryo?

 An embryo is an egg that has

already been fertilized by a
sperm cell.

 It is an organism in the earliest

stage of development.
 What is Embryo Transfer?

ET involves the removal of an embryo from a

female of superior genetics and the placement of
the embryo into the reproductive tract of a female
of average genetics.


 Cont….
ↂEmbryo transfer technology (ETT) is a technique by which
embryos are collected from a donor female and transferred
to recipient females,
ↂIt is one of the most techniques in reproductive
biotechnology where male and female genetic material can
be used for the faster improvement of livestock.
ↂEmbryos of indigenous bovines with higher genetic merit
can be transferred into the surrogate cows
 What is the Goal of Embryo
Transfer?

• The goal of ET is to obtain the

maximum number of genetically
superior embryos in a minimum
amount of time.
 Benefits (continued)
ET can increase the genetic potential of a herd
in a relatively short period of time.

ET can increase milk production in dairy

herds.

ET can increase weaning weights in beef and

dairy herds.
 Benefits (continued)

⁂ET allows other producers to take

advantage of superior genetics because
frozen embryos can be shipped almost
anywhere.

⁂ET preserves superior genetics for future

generations due to embryo freezing.
 The Process of Embryo Transfer

ET begins with the selection of a donor female.

The donor female will contribute the embryos to be

transferred.
 Donor female Have Superior
Characteristics

• High milking ability

• High growth rate

• Outstanding
reproductive
capacity
 Recipient female

₩ Finally, recipient female must be selected.

₩ Recipient female serve as surrogate (foster) mothers to the calves,

but contribute no genetic information.

₩ For this reason, the genetic makeup of the recipient cow is not as
important as the makeup of the donor female.
 Recipient female(continued)

However, the recipient female must be able

to maintain her pregnancy to term and
produce an adequate milk supply for her
calf.
 Removing the Embryos

 The uterine horn is filled with flush

media and massaged to allow the
embryos to flow out of the tract.

 This process is repeated several times

in each uterine horn.
 Collecting the Embryos
 Embryos are carried out of the
reproductive tract through
plastic tubes and collected in a
filter with the flush media.

 The pores in the filter are

smaller than the embryos so
excess fluid drains out of the
filter without losing the
embryos.
 Injecting Penicillin

After the embryos have been

flushed out, uterus injected with
penicillin to kill any missed
embryos or infections.
 Embryo Quality

The embryos on the The embryo

left are damaged and on the right is
should not be of proper
transferred. maturity and
quality and
should be
transferred.
 Transferring the Embryos

• The embryo to be transferred is put into a

small, plastic straw and then loaded into an
embryo transfer gun.
 Transferring the Embryos (continued)

₪ The embryo is then inserted into either the left or right

uterine horn depending on which ovary has a corpus lutuem
(CL).

₪ The CL is a structure on the ovary that secretes the hormone

progesterone which is needed to maintain the pregnancy.
 Transfer Immediately or Freeze

 Embryos should be
transferred as soon as
possible after the flush
(within 8 hours at
least).

 Embryos can also be

frozen for later
implantation and
stored in liquid
nitrogen tanks.
 Benefits to Embryo Transfer

 -A single heifer or cow is able to produce multip

calves from the same genetic line.

 -An older superior cow is able to donate ovules f

embryo transfer.

 -Embryos can be frozen and stored for future us

 Disadvantages of ET

 -Increased expenses and higher breakeven costs for

calves.

 • Requires a higher level of management.

 • Increased potential for spread of certain diseases.

 • Not all potential donors respond positively to

treatment.
₪ External Fertilization

₪ What is External Fertilization?

₪ Fertilization is the union between the female and male gamete, also
known as the ovum and sperm.
₪ From this union, the zygote forms which eventually develops into an
embryo.
₪ This process of fusion between both sex cells can occur inside or
outside of the female's body. This is known as internal or external
fertilization, respectively.
External fertilization is the process of union of the gametes outside the body of the female.
This means it occurs somewhere in the environment of males and females.

 The sperms and eggs are released in an external environment.

Main Difference – Internal vs External Fertilization
 
Internal fertilization and external fertilization are the two
mechanisms involved in the fusion of 
male and female gametes. Fertilization is one of the
rearmost events of the sexual reproduction, which forms
the zygote.
The zygote develops into a new organism.
The main difference between internal and external
fertilization is that internal fertilization occurs inside the
Oviparity, viviparity, and ovoviparity are the three
methods of internal fertilization.
Internal fertilization occurs in mammals, reptiles,
some birds, and some fish.
External fertilization occurs in frog, fish, mollusks, and
crustaceans.
Internal fertilization shows high survival rates of the
embryo than the external fertilization.
Terminology
Oviparity: expulsion of immature eggs rather than live young.
The eggs may have been fertilized before release, as in birds
and some reptiles, or are to be fertilized externally, as in 
amphibians and many lower forms.
In general, the number of eggs produced by oviparous
species greatly exceeds the number of offspring from species
that bear live young, but the chances of survival are
diminished because of the lack of maternal protection. 
Eg ,Oviparity:
 Viviparity refers to the mode of reproduction
in which animals directly give birth to young
ones.

 Therefore, viviparous animals give birth to

young ones without laying eggs.

 The fertilization takes place internally inside

the female organism.
Ovoviviparity: is another mode of reproduction in
which animals lay eggs and develop the eggs inside
the mother’s body. Eg frogs
 
Features of External Fertilization
 The success rate of fertilization is very low.

 Unlike internal fertilization, a large number of

gametes need to be produced by the male and
female to ensure reproductive success.
 A water body is required to initiate external
fertilization. The sperms would die on land.
 It is a reproductive disadvantage for most of the

animals because most of the gametes die without

being fertilized.

 External fertilization is, however, a simple

reproductive strategy which does not require the

involvement of any hormones or mating rituals.

Advantages of External Fertilization

 It results in increased genetic variations.

 It produces a larger number of offspring’s.

 The gametes released can drift and therefore it is

easy to find mates.

Disadvantages of External Fertilization
 A large quantity of gametes is wasted and left
unfertilized.
 Chances of fertilization  are diminished by
environmental hazards and Predators
 Eggs and sperms, essentially, may not come in
contact
 Desiccation of zygote or gametes
Examples of External Fertilization

The examples of external fertilization are given

below:

Frogs

The female releases the eggs into the water. The male
also releases the sperms in the water to fertilize them.
The larval life of the frogs is in water, whereas the
adult life is on land.
Salmon

They have an opening right in front of their anal fin through

which the gametes are released and then fertilized.

Starfish

They gather in groups and use chemical signals to indicate the

other members of the group that they are ready to spawn. This
synchronized spawning increases the chances of fertilization
success.
 Chapter 5: ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

What is environmental ethics?

 Environmental ethics is a branch of ethics that studies the

relation of human beings and the environment and how
ethics play a role in this.
 in other wards it is the study of ethical relationships
between human beings and the natural environment,
including the nonhuman individuals that
populate/constitute it.
Environmental ethics believe that humans are a part of society as well as other living creatures,
which includes plants and animals. Environmental ethics believe that humans are a part of

society as well as other living creatures, which includes plants and animals. Environmental
ethics is related to environmental philosophy and defines what is right and wrong at ecological
level.
Environmental ethics believe that humans are
a part of society as well as other living
creatures, which includes plants and animals.
Environmental ethics believe that humans are
a part of society as well as other living
creatures, which includes plants and animals.
Environmental ethics is related to
environmental philosophy and defines what is
right and wrong at ecological level.
Modern philosophy on environmental ethics
has evolved in the second half of twentieth
century. Population explosion, environmental
degradation, resource crisis etc. problems drew
the
attention towards the environmental concerns.
However, it also raised some challenges while
deciding the environmental ethics in
contemporary situation.
Disparity among society, nations and region;
basic right to procure the resources for daily
livelihood; right to access to resources etc were
the key challenges in designing environmental
ethics. This has led to different views on
environmental ethics. And this also led to
formulation of different approaches on
environmental ethics. There are primarily three
views on environmental ethics:
1. LIBERTARIAN VIEW
2. ECOLOGICAL VIEW
3. CONSERVATION VIEW

1. Libertarian view

This view is correlated to the principle of civil

liberty. As civil liberty follows the commitment
to equal rights to every member of community,
development of an ethics to deal with men‘s
relationship with land animal and plant is
absolutely essential. Social conscience from
people to land and nature is equally inevitable.
land and nature is equally inevitable. It is not
right to see the natural world simply in the
terms.
of its economic worth to human. Equal rights
or liberty to all human and nonhuman members
in the environment is the principle doctrine of
libertarian view.
2. Ecological view

Ecological view demonstrates ecological

functioning. On ethical ground, it is believed
that earth has its own mechanism for
functioning, growth and development. Nature
has its own purification processes and recovery
systems of life even in most adverse condition.
Moreover it is believed that whenever the
climatic change had taken place, it took place
within a very narrow
range of region to enable the life to recover
before it gets totally destroyed.
This theory is in contrast to Darwinian idea of
survival of the fittest. In support of this view,
ecologist argue that there are many types of
algae that are resistance to ultraviolet radiation,
and
life would continue and new life would evolve
even if the ultraviolet radiation possess the
threat to the life on the earth. This theory warns
human to change their perceptions and see
them as a part of a whole system
Conservation ethic
Conservation ethic‘is an extension of instrumental value to the natural environment. It focuses on
on the work of environment in the terms of its utility and usefulness to humans .Conservation is th
oldest form of ethic that lead to creation of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, responsible use
non-renewable energy sources, water efforts. Conservation is therefore
means to an end and purely concerned with mankind and his future generations. Most of th
international treaties are outline as consequences of this ethics.
Eco-spirituality
While policy maker‘s negotiation and create cleaner solutions, it is important to heel the earth and
its process heal(rebuild) us. It should be guided by spiritual principle that ensures long term
sustainability. The idea that faith can be used to save ecology was first used by formation of
WORLDWIDE FUND FOR NATURE. Eco- spiritualism was later extended up to five major
world religion (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islamic and Judaism). Each religion thus,
provided spiritual motivation for environmental action in number of its programme. „Go
Green‘has become ritual across the