Theoretica

l Cycles
Cycle
A cycle is a process that begins with certain
conditions, progresses through a series of events,
and returns to the original conditions.
Theoretical Cycles 
Theoretical cycles can also be called ideal
cycles since it is calculated assuming that the
operating conditions are ideal. In theoretical
cycles (or ideal cycles) it is assumed that the
operating fluid is constituted by air and that it
behaves like a perfect gas.
Theoretical Cycles of Heat Engines

Theoretical cycles are approximations to the real

cycles. They serve to study the performance of an
engine. In a real cycle there are so many variables
that affect the efficiency of the engine that it would
be impossible to perform exact calculations.
However, theoretical cycles allow us to make very
reliable approximations.
For endothermic motorcycles, the most used
approximations in order of approximation to the
real conditions are three:
• Actual cycle or indicated cycle, measured empirically
• Air cycle
• Air-fuel cycle

 combustion is an endothermic reaction given off or exiting ,

which means that energy is released.
Actual Cycle

The Actual cycle in the Thermodynamics is a cycle

of operations experienced by the actual 
Internal combustion engine where the efficiency of
this actual Internal combustion engine is much
lower than the Ideal cycle or Air-Standard cycle
 due to various losses in the processes.
Major Losses in the Actual Cycles

Following are the different major losses occurred during the actual
cycle.
• Incomplete combustion of fuel.
• Progressive combustion.
• Variation in the specific heat of the fuel for the different temperatures.
• Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber.
• Due to the Exhaust-blowdown at the end of the exhaust process.
• Dissociation of the combustion products.
• Gas Exchange process.
 The actual cycle experienced by internal
combustion engines is an open cycle with
changing composition, actual cycle efficiency
is much lower than the air standard efficiency
due to various losses occurring in the actual
engine. These losses are as follows:
1- Losses due to variation of specific heats
The Actual with temperature: already discussed.
2- Losses due to dissociation: already
Cycle discussed.
3- time losses
4- incomplete combustion loss
5- direct heat loss
6- exhaust blow down loss
7- pumping losses
8- Friction losses
Time Losses
In theoretical cycles the burning is
assumed to be instantaneous. Whereas,
in actual cycle, burning is completed in
a definite interval of time. The effect of
this time is that the maximum pressure
will not be produced when the volume
is minimum.
The effect of time losses on P-V
diagram. In order that the maximum
pressure is not reached too late in the
expansion stroke, the time at which
burning starts is varied by varying the Figure 4: The effect of time losses
spark timing (spark advance). on P-V diagram
Incomplete Combustion Loss
Fuel vapor, air, and residual gas are present in the
cylinder, this makes it impossible to obtain perfect
homogeneous mixture.. Therefore, some fuel
does not burn to CO2 or partially burns to CO, and
O2 will appear in the exhaust. Energy release in
actual engine is about 90 to 93% of fuel energy
input.
Direct Heat Loss
During combustion process and subsequent expansion stroke,
the heat flows from cylinder gases through cylinder walls and
cylinder head into the water jacket or cooling fins. Some heat
enters the piston head and flows through piston rings into the
walls of the cylinder or carried away by the engine oil.

The heat loss during combustion and expansion does not

represent a complete heat loss; a part of the heat loss would
be rejected in the exhaust at the end of the expansion stroke.
Exhaust Blow Down Loss
The opening of the exhaust value before B.D.C.
reducing cylinder pressure, causing the roundness
of the end of the P-V diagram, this means a
reduction in the work done per cycle.
Pumping Losses
Pumping loss is due to expelling the exhaust gases
and the induction of the fresh charge. In naturally
aspirated engine this would be a negative work.
Friction Losses
These losses are due to the friction between the
piston and cylinder walls, the various bearings,
and the friction in the auxiliary equipment, such
as pumps, fans, etc.…
Air Cycle of a Heat Engine

In the air cycle, the operating fluid is also air, but the specific heats are
assumed to be variable throughout the temperature range in which it
operates.

The conditions for introducing and removing heat are the same as in the
ideal cycle and there are no heat losses. Since the calculation of the
thermodynamic variables of the mean specific heats is complicated, tables
are used that directly give the values ​of heat and work. These energy
values ​are in terms of internal energy and enthalpy for the various points
of the isentropic transformations of the air. Taking into account the
variations in specific heats, values ​lower than those calculated for the
ideal cycle are obtained for maximum temperatures and pressures;
consequently, the work and the thermal efficiency also lower. However,
they are still larger than those corresponding to a real cycle.
Fuel Air Cycle 
The theoretical cycle based on the actual
properties of the cylinder contents is called
the fuel – air cycle.
Air-fuel Cycle in a Heat Engine

Among all the cycles that are calculated, the air-fuel

cycle is the closest to the real cycle. In the 
positive ignition engine (Otto cycle), the fluid is
composed, during the suction phase, of the mixture and
the residual gases of the previous combustion. In the 
compression ignition engine, it is made up of air and
waste gases. After combustion, the fluid is made up of its
products, that is, a mixture of CO 2 , CO, H 2 O, N 2 .
.

These gases have an average specific heat even higher

than that of air; but in addition, there is a subsequent
increase in specific heats. This increase is due to the
dissociation or chemical decomposition of the lighter
molecules subjected to the action of high temperatures.
The increase in specific heats, as well as the dissociation
that, being an endothermic reaction, absorbs a part of
the heat of combustion, produce a subsequent decrease
in temperature and maximum pressure compared to
those calculated for the air cycle.
Air Fuel Cycle
The theoretical cycle based on the
actual properties of the cylinder
contents is called the fuel – air cycle.
The fuel – air cycle take into
consideration the following:
1- The actual composition of the
cylinder contents.
2- The variation in the specific heat
of the gases in the cylinder
3- The dissociation effect
4- The variation in the number of
moles present in the cylinder as the
pressure and temperature change.
5- Compression & expansion
processes are frictionless
6- No chemical changes in either
fuel or air prior to combustion.
7- Combustion takes place
instantaneously at top dead
center.
8- All processes are adiabatic.
9- The fuel is mixed well with air.
10- After combustion, the change
is always in chemical equilibrium
1. The actual composition of the cylinder
contents are
• (Fuel +Air + Water vapor + residual gas)
• The fuel air ratio changes during the engine operation
• The change in air-fuel ratio affects the composition of gases before
and after combustion particularly the percentage of CO2, CO, H2O
etc.. in the exhaust gas.
• The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance volume various with
speed and load on the engine.
• The fresh charge composition varies its composition because when it enters in
the cylinder meets the burnt gases
.• The composition
of the working
fluid, which
changes during
the engine
operating cycle, is
indicated in the
following table
.

• The effect of cylinder composition on the

performance of the engine can easily computed by
means of suitable numerical techniques.
• The computer analysis can produce fast and accurate
results.
• Thus, fuel-air analysis can be done more easily
through computer rather than manual calculations
2. The variation of specific heat with
temperature
• All gases except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat with
temperature.
• The increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law.
• However, between the temperature range 300 K – 1500 K the specific heat
curve is nearly a straight line which may be approximately expressed in form
Cp = a1 + k1T
Cv = b1 + k1T
• Where a1, b1, and k1 are constants
• The gas constant R= Cp- Cv = a1-b1