General Chemistry

Rhommel S. Aninag, MSTChem

Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
University of Northern Philippines

1
The Atoms & Atomic
Theory

Chapter 4

2
 What is an atom?
• Atom: the smallest unit of matter that
retains the identity of the substance

• First proposed by Democratus

 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

460 BC Democritus develops the idea of atoms

he pounded up materials in his pestle and

mortar until he had reduced them to smaller

and smaller particles which he called

ATOMA
(greek for indivisible)
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1808 John Dalton

suggested that all matter was made up of

tiny spheres that were able to bounce around

with perfect elasticity and called them

ATOMS
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1898 Joseph John Thompson

found that atoms could sometimes eject a

far smaller negative particle which he called

an

ELECTRON
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM
1904

Thompson develops the idea that an atom was made up of

electrons scattered unevenly within an elastic sphere surrounded

by a soup of positive charge to balance the electron's charge

like plums surrounded by pudding.

PLUM PUDDING
MODEL
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1910 Ernest Rutherford

oversaw Geiger and Marsden carrying out his

famous experiment.

they fired Helium nuclei at a piece of gold foil

which was only a few atoms thick.

they found that although most of them

passed through. About 1 in 10,000 hit
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

gold foil
helium nuclei

helium nuclei

They found that while most of the helium nuclei passed

through the foil, a small number were deflected and, to their
surprise, some helium nuclei bounced straight back.
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

Rutherford’s new evidence allowed him to propose a more

detailed model with a central nucleus.

He suggested that the positive charge was all in a central

nucleus. With this holding the electrons in place by electrical
attraction

However, this was not the end of the story.

 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1913 Niels Bohr

studied under Rutherford at the Victoria

University in Manchester.

Bohr refined Rutherford's idea by adding

that the electrons were in orbits. Rather
like planets orbiting the sun. With each
orbit only able to contain a set number of
electrons.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Elements are composed of atoms
– tiny, hard, unbreakable, spheres
• All atoms of a given element are identical
– all carbon atoms have the same chemical and physical
properties
• Atoms of a given element are different from those
of any other element
– carbon atoms have different chemical and physical
properties than sulfur atoms

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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Atoms of one element
combine with atoms of
other elements to form
compounds.
– Law of Constant
Composition
• all samples of a
compound contain the
same proportions (by
mass) of the elements
– Chemical Formulas
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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Atoms are indivisible in a chemical process.
– all atoms present at beginning are present at
the end
– atoms are not created or destroyed, just
rearranged
– atoms of one element cannot change into
atoms of another element
• cannot turn Lead into Gold by a chemical reaction

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 HELIUM ATOM
Shell
proton

N
+ -
+
- N

electron neutron

What do these particles consist of?

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Particle Symbol Discoverer Charged Location

Proton P or p+ Ernest Rutherford +1 Inside the

nucleus
Electron E or e- J.J. Thompson -1 Outside the
nucleus
Neutron N or n0 James Chadwick 0 Inside the
nucleus
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

He
Atomic number (Z)
the number of protons in an atom

4 Atomic mass (A)

the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom

number of electrons = number of protons

number of neutron = A - Z
Give the complete analysis of the following atoms
as to the mass number, atomic number, and
number of protons, electrons and neutrons
• O816

• Au79197

• Cl1735

• Mn2555

• Cd48112
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 Isotopes
• All atoms of an element have the same number of protons
• The number of protons in an atom of a given element is
the same as the atomic number
– found on the Periodic Table
• Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes
• All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
– undergo the exact same chemical reactions
• Isotopes of an element have different masses
• Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers
– mass number = protons + neutrons

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 Example
• Carbon occurs naturally as two isotopes.
Calculate the atomic mass for carbon
given the following information.

Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance (%)

C – 12 12.0000 98.89
C – 13 13.0034 1.11

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• Iron has four naturally occurring isotopes.
Calculate the atomic mass for iron given
the following data.

Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance (%)

Fe – 54 53.9396 5.92
Fe - 56 55.9349 91.72
Fe - 57 56.9354 2.11
Fe - 58 57.9333 0.282

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Electronic Structure of Atoms

• The Bohr Model of Atomic Structure

 the modern theory of the structure of the
atom was extended by Neils Bohr in
1913, a Danish physicist, who worked on
the detained arrangements of the electron
around the nucleus of the atom.

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 Bohr proposed that an atom is like a
miniature solar system in which the
electrons move in orbits around the
nucleus of the atom in the same way
as planets move in orbits around the
sun.

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 How exactly are the particles
arranged?
• Bohr Model of the atom:
Reviewers think this could lead to misconceptions!
All of the
protons and
the neutrons
The 3rd ring
can hold up
to 18 e- The 1st ring can
The 4th ring hold up to 2 e-
and any after The 2nd ring can
can hold up to hold up to 8 e-
32 e-
 Energy Level
• Electrons in atoms are arranged around their
nuclei in positions known as energy levels
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in specific
energy level.
• The energy levels or shells increase in energy
as the distance from the nucleus increases
• The energy levels are designated either by
letters starting with K or with number starting
with 1.
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• The maximum number of electrons in each
energy level is equal to 2n2 where n is the
number of the energy level.
• The first energy level must be completely
filled before electrons can begin filling the
second energy level; the second energy
level must be completely filled before
electrons can begin filling the third energy
level.

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 Higher Energy Level
• Outer electrons that are removed from the
other electrons.

Lower Energy Level

• Inner electrons that are nearer the
nucleus.

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 Energy Sublevels
• An energy level is composed of sublevels,
differing from one another in their spatial
arrangement.
• Energy sublevels are designated as s
(sharp), p (principal), d (diffuse), f
(fundamental), whose names were
suggested by the appearance or position
of lines in the spectra of excited elements.
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 Subdivision of the Main
Energy Level
Main Energy Level (n) 1 2 3 4
No. of Sublevel (n) 1 2 3 4

No of Orbital's (n2) 1 2 3 4

Type of Sublevel s s, p s, p, d s, p, d, f

No. of Orbital’s / Level 1 1, 3 1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5, 7

Max. no. of e- / Sublevel 2 2, 6 2, 6, 10 2, 6, 10,14

Max. no. of e- / main 2 8 18 32

energy Level

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Electrons are arranged in Energy Levels or

Shells around the nucleus of an atom.

• first shell a maximum of 2 electrons

• second shell a maximum of 8 electrons

• third shell a maximum of 18 electrons

 Orbital
• It represents a region in space
surrounding the nucleus in which one is
most likely to find an electron within a
given quantum number.
• Is the region of high electron probability
• An orbital can hold a maximum of 2
electrons

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 Quantum Numbers

• Used to characterize the location of

electrons in terms of integral numbers.
• The electron in an atom has a set of four
quantum numbers n, l, ml and ms

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The Principal Quantum Number /
First Quantum Number (n)
• It tells what main energy level the electron
is in. the quantum number, n, can take on
only integral values, starting with 1:
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ……..
• an electron for which n = 1 is said to be in
the first main energy level, an electron for
which n = 2 is in the second main energy
level and so on.
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 The SecondQuantum Number /
Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
• It tells what energy sublevel the electron is found.
• The quantum number (l) can take on any integral
value from 0 and going up to a maximum of (n –
1).
n = 1; l = 0 : means that, in the 1st main energy
level, there is only one sublevel (s)
n = 2; l = 0, 1: p sublevel with 3 orbital
n = 3; l = 0, 1, 2 : d sublevel with 5 orbital
n = 4; l = 0, 1, 2, 3 : f sublevel with 7 orbital

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 The Third Quantum Number /
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
• It tells what particular orbital the electron occupies
within an energy sublevel.
• for given (l) value, ml can have any integral value
including 0, between 1 and -1.
if n = 1 and l = 0 therefore ml = 0; means 0 as its
atomic orbital
if n = 2 and l = 1 therefore ml = +1, 0, -1; means +1 or
0 or -1 as its atomic orbital’s.
if n = 3 and l = 2 therefore ml = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2; means
that +2, or +1, or 0, or -1, or -2 are its atomic orbital’s

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 The Fourth Quantum Number /
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
• It described the two ways in which an
electron may be aligned in a magnetic field
• This is associated with the spin of the
electrons.
• An electron can either spin in a clockwise
or counter – clockwise direction.
ms = +1/2
ms = -1/2
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 Example
• Write all possible sets of quantum numbers in the
second main energy level.
• Write the four quantum numbers of the electrons
in the 4d sublevels.
• Write the four quantum numbers of the specified
electron:
1. 4th electron in the 3p sublevel
2. 1st electron in the 4s sublevel
3. 10th electron in the 5f sublevel
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 Example
• Identify the electron described by the
following quantum numbers:
1. 1, 0, 0, +1/2
2. 6, 2, -2, -1/2
3. 2, 1, 0, +1/2

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

There are two ways to represent the atomic

structure of an element or compound;

1. Electronic Configuration

2. Dot & Cross Diagrams

 Electronic Configuration
• The atoms and ions of every element have a
specific number and type of electrons.
• An electron configuration serves as a way to
represent these electrons.
• An atom’s electron configuration represents the
arrangement of all the electrons in that atom
• This configuration depends mostly on the atomic
number which then characterizes the number of
electrons in the atom.
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 Order of Filling Orbitals
• Aufbau Principle
 states that electrons fill energy levels in an
atom by completely filling one sublevel
before moving to the next one of higher
energy.
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
 states that no more than two electrons in
an atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
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• Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity
 states that each orbital is occupied by one
electron before any can have two and the
electrons must have parallel spins.
 when electrons enter a sublevel
containing more than one orbital, they will
spread out the available orbitals with then
spins in the same direction before they
pair up with opposite spins.

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 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms
• Filling of orbital is also best illustrated by the
rectangular arrowhead method, where a box is
used to denote an orbital and a vertical arrow (↑ or
↓) indicates an electron and its direction spin.
• An orbital containing paired electrons is written as
↑↓ with the first electron in an orbital arbitrarily
designated by an “up” arrow, ↑.
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 8 electrons of oxygen are distributed in the following manner

1s 2s 2p

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 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

With electronic configuration elements are represented

numerically by the number of electrons in their shells

and number of shells. For example;

Nitrogen configuration = 2 , 5

2 in 1st shell 7

5 in 2nd
shell
2 + 5 = 7
N 14
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Write the electronic configuration and orbital diagram

for the following elements;

20 11 8
a) Ca b) Na c) O
23 16
40

17 51 35
d) Cl e) Sb f) Br80
35 122
 DOT & CROSS DIAGRAMS

With Dot & Cross diagrams elements and compounds

are represented by Dots or Crosses to show electrons,

and circles to show the shells. For example;

X

Nitrogen 7

N
X X N X X

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XX
 DOT & CROSS DIAGRAMS

Draw the Dot & Cross diagrams for the following

elements;
8 17
X
a) O b) Cl 35 X X
16 X
X X X
X
X X X X Cl X X X
X O X
X X
X X X
X X X
X