Ultrasonic Testing

INTRODUCTION:

Human ears can respond to sound vibrations, which have frequencies

in the range of 20HZ to 20000HZ.
Frequency below 20HZ are inaudible & are known as infrasonic
frequencies & those above 20000HZ which are also inaudible are
known as ultrasonic frequencies.

VIBRATION:

What is a Vibration?
For our purpose we need to recognize two facts about a vibration:
1. A vibration is a back & forth movement.
2.A vibration is a energy in motion.
Principle

Shown below is a ball suspended from a string (point A). If we raise the ball (point
B) & release it the ball will swing through an arc (point C, D, E & F). Note that we
first gave energy to the ball by raising the ball (point B). The ball first moved in the
one direction &then in opposite direction. Vibration is energy moving back& forth.

A B C D E F
The distance the ball moves from its rest position is called displacement.
EXAMPLES OF DISPLACEMENT:
1. Piston moving back and forth in a tube
2. If a Rubber ball is hit with a hammer, the surface hit by the
hammer will move inwards due to ball elasticity. This inwards movement of
the ball surface is a displacement.
• In Ultrasonic Testing it is important to realize that the concept of
displacement also applies to solid materials.
3. A thin plate is hit by a hammer we can see vibration and displacement.
Vibrations pass through a solid material as a succession of particle
displacements.
 1 2 3 4 5
The structure of a material is actually many small particles or groups of
atoms.These particles have normal or rest positions & can be displaced from
positions by some force. When the force is removed the particles will tend to return
to their original positions.
Energy is transmitted through a solid material by a series of small displacements
of the particles within the material.
The transmission of ultrasonic vibration through material is related to the elastic
properties of the material.
If a steel ball is placed in a vise. If we tighten the vise the ball is compressed
in one direction & expands in another direction.
And if we remove the ball from the vise we find the ball returns to its original
dimension. From this action we know that even a solid material is elastic, it
may be compressed or expanded & still return to its original shape.
The transmission of Ultrasonic Vibration through a material is related
to the elastic properties of the material. And it is this elastic property
which permits energy to move through a material as waves of
Ultrasonic Sound.
If we tap a metal surface, the metal surface moves inward is called the
displacement. Since metal is elastic the surface will move back to its original
position. The surface will also move through the original position to a
maximum distance in the opposite direction. This new maximum distance is
called a displacement. And finally the surface returns to its center or rest
position. This complete sequence of movements is defined as a cycle.
* The time required for something to move through one complete cycle is called
the period.

* The number of complete cycles in a given period of time is called the

frequency. Frequency is measured in Hertz(Hz)
1
Period = Frequency

Example: If a ball swings through three complete cycles in one second.

Then the frequency is 3(cps)or 3Hz. and period is 1/3sec=0.33 seconds
*Generally Ultrasonic Testing of metals will be done in the range of 0.5 to
25 MHz
 Distance
Velocity =
Time

The symbol λ is used to represent a wavelength and is called ‘Lambda’

Displacement: The back and forth movement of the particles within a medium
are called displacement.
Vibration: The displacement of a mass from its rest position.
Frequency: Number of cycles per second (f in Hz)
Wavelength: The distance travelled by one cycle (in meters)
Velocity: The speed at which sound waves travel through a medium (v in m/s).
This depends upon elastic properties & density of a medium, & wave mode.
Ultrasonic: Vibrations above (Ultra) audible (Sonic) Range i.e.>20Khz
Example:
In a steel block of 100mm thickness it travels to the back of the material &
returns. What we do with UFD is to measure this short time at the specific
speed of 5920 m/s i.e approx.. 6000 m/s

Time = Distance / Speed (V) =m / 6000 m/s = 33.3 usec.

2) If a wave requires a time of 16.6 usecs to reach a steel specimen thickness

what will the thickness of the block.

Time= Distance / Velocity = 99.6 mm / -- = --

So, Thickness = Distance /2 =99.6/2 = 49.8 mm

If time required to travel in steel plate is 8 usecs, then what will be thickness of
plate?

V = Distance / Time
Distance = V x T = 48 mm
Distance / 2 = Thickness
Thickness = 24 mm
Example:
What would be the wavelength in a steel specimen with velocity 5920m/s using a
transducer with frequency 4MHz.
λ = V (km) / F (mz) = 5.92 / 4 = 1.48 mm
λ = 1.48mm
Example:
What would be the smallest discontinuity that you can find in the above example?
*The smallest discontinuity you can find with ultrasonic testing is about 1/2
Lambda(wavelength)
Flaw detectability D = λ / 2 = 1.48 / 2 = 0.74mm
(So we can find out 0.74mm defect)
Wave Propagation Characteristics

Sound waves are propagation of mechanical vibrations. Each particle, which

vibrates due to applied excitation, oscillates its immediate neighbour & this
process continues till total energy transfer occurs. Several possible modes of
vibrations can exist in solids.
*In general the velocity of sound propagation in material is constant & is
dependent on the elastic properties of the material & its density.
On the basis of the particle displacement in the medium Ultrasonic Waves are
classified as:
1. Longitudinal Wave or Compressional Wave
2. Transverse Wave or Shear Wave
3. Surface Wave or Rayleigh Wave
4. Plate Wave or lamb Wave
Longitudinal Wave

The particle motion is in

the same direction as
that of wave
propagation. They travel
in solids, liquids & gases
& their velocity is
highest.
Shear Wave

The particle motion is in

the perpendicular
direction to that of wave
propagation. They travel
only in solids & their
velocity is approx. half of
the longitudinal velocity
Surface or Rayleigh Wave

The particle motion is elliptical with the major axis at right angle to the
direction of propagation.
Travel in solid only.
The velocity is approx. 0.9 times that of transverse wave velocity in the same
material.
Are more sensitive to surface defects but can penetrate the depth of the
wavelength. At this point the energy is 25% of the wave energy at the
surface.
Follow contoured surfaces.
Get reflected from sharp surfaces.
Easily dampened by foreign particle in their path.
The reflector can be pinpointed by tapping a finger on the surface.
Surface or Rayleigh Wave
Plate Wave

Produced in thin sheets when beaming is done by angle probe at particular

angle.

Velocity depends on the material thickness angle of incidence & the

frequency.

They are used for testing of thin plates. For lamination & for debonding in
cladded materials.

It is not possible to generate surface or shear wave on the materials thinner

than one- half wavelength.

They are of two types: a) Symmetrical b) Asymmetrical

The particle motion is elliptical on both the surfaces, where as in the center, it
is longitudinal for symmetrical& transverse for asymmetrical waves.
Plate Wave
Sound Velocities

1 Aluminium VL = 6320 m/s. VS = 3130 m/s.

2 Al. 250 VL = 6350 m/s. VS = 3100 m/s.

3 Beryllium VL = 12800 m/s. VS = 8710 m/s.

4 Brass VL = 4430 m/s. VS = 2120 m/s.

5 Copper VL = 4700 m/s. VS = 2260 m/s.

6 Lucite VL = 2670 m/s. VS = 1120 m/s.

7 Perspex VL = 2730 m/s. VS = 1430 m/s.

Acoustic Impedance Z
8 Steel VL = 5940 m/s. VS = 3250 m/s.
Steel 42.1 Kg/M2. Sec
9 Stainless Steel VL = 5660 m/s. VS = 3120 m/s.
Beryllium 23.3 Kg/M2. Sec
10 Water VL = 1480 m/s.  
Water 1.5 Kg/M2. Sec
Barium Titanate VL = 4400 m/s density = 5.9 gm/cs
Amplitude, Pressure and Intensity

The particle motion creates periodic compression & rarefaction in the material. Thus
the wave can also be considered as pressure wave.
The relation between pressure (P) & particle amplitude(A) is given by
P  ZA
where Z is called ‘Acoustic Impedance’
Z=density*velocity
Velocity-cm/secDensity-gm/cm3
Impedance-gm/cm2-sec
Acoustic Impedance: The factor which controls the propagation of an Ultrasonic
wave at a boundary interface. It is the product of the material density & the acoustic
wave velocity within the material.
Unit: Z (in kg/m2sec)
1. Calculate the Acoustic Impedance for brass (V=4.43*105 m/sec.

ς = 8.42 gm/cm2

z= *ς V
= 8.42 * 4.43 * 105 4z2 z1
= 3.7 * 106 gm/cm2/sec. T=
(z2 + z1)2

4*45*5
2. If acoustic impedance of medium I is 45*106 =
kg/m2/sec & mat of II medium us 5*106 45*5
kg/m2/sec. then what will be % transmitted 900
energy? =
2500

= 36%
Reflection and Transmission
Reflection: The return of sound wave at an interface.
The incident ray, the reflected ray& the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

A B C

i r

M O N

Refraction: Sound wave crossing obliquely boundary separating two media,

where the velocities of propagation are different undergo an abrupt change in
direction.This is known as refraction/transmission.The sine of the angle of
incidence bears a constant ratio to the sine of the angle of refraction.
SNELL’S LAW:
Sine of incident angle V1
=
Sine of reflected angle V2

Sin = I constant =V1

Sin θ1 = R V2
θ2
Where, V1= velocity of sound in medium1
V2 = velocity of sound in medium2
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT:
When sound is incident normal i.e. perpendicular to an interface between two media.
It is partly reflected and partly transmitted. The ratio of the reflected sound energy
(ER) to the sound energy incident (EI) is called reflection coefficient (R).
ER
R=
EI
The ratio of the transmitted sound energy (ET) to the sound energy incident (EI) is
called transmission coefficient (T) ET
T=
EI
These factor depend upon a property called ‘Acoustic Impedance’
(Z2-Z1)2 4*Z 2*Z1
R= T=
(Z2+Z1) 2
(Z2+Z1)2
Example:
Let us consider the behavior of sound at steel water interface.
Consider sound waves coming from steel &striking water.
Here we have Z1 for steel = 46.7 gm/cm2sec
Z2 for water = 1.48 gm/cm2sec
Now, (Z2-Z1)2 (1.48-46.7)2
(Z2+Z1)2 (1.48+46.7)2
R = 88% & T + R = 1
T = 12%
MODE CONVERSION:

When a sound beam strikes an interface between two materials having acoustic
impedance at an angle other than normal incidence. Some energy may be converted to
other modes of vibration the interface will give rise to a distribution of wave in both
media.
For any angle of
incidence other than
normal for each
longitudinal wave there
will be reflection &
refraction also
increases when the
refraction angle of
longitudinal wave
reaches 90 deg. the
wave energies from
second medium &
travels parallel to the
interface. The angle of
incidence at which this happens is called “1st critical angle” of incidence for the
longitudinal wave.

Further if the angle of incidence is increased till the angle of refraction for the shear
mode is 90 deg. We get what is called the 2nd critical angle of incidence for the
shear wave.
If the angle of incidence is further increased we get total reflection for both
longitudinal & shear wave modes two other types may be formed known as lamb
waves & surface or Raleigh waves.
Absorption Scatter & Attenuation:
In a real material a sound wave also continuously loses a part of its energy through
conversion in to heat & this is called (pure) absorption. In addition a part of the
sound wave is scattered from microscopic interfaces in the material & this is called
scatter.
The combination loss of the energy due to absorption & scatter is known as
Attenuation.
1. Calculate the 1st & 2nd critical angle for perspex & steel interface?
V1
2.73
1st L = Sin-1 = = 27.5˚
V2 5.92

(V1) 2730
2nd L = Sin-1 = = 57.2˚
(V2) 3250
2. A 4MHz snear wave probe having 60˚ angle in steel is used for testing copper
plate the angle & the frequency of this probe is copper will be –

Sin 60˚ 3250

= θ = 37˚
Sin θ 2260
 90

80
ANGLE OF SOUND STEEL (DEGREES)

                               
70
                               
60
SHEAR MODE
    LONGITUDINAL
    MODE
                       
50

                               
40

                               
30

                               
20
                               
10
                               

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

ANGLE OF TRANSDUCER WEDGE BLOCK (DEGREES) IN LUCITE

RELATIVE AMPLITUDE

LONGITUDINAL

SURFACE
SHEAR

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
 PROBE (TRANSDUCERS) & THE GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC SOUND

Probe (Transducers): A device that converts energy from one form to another, e.g.
Electrical to mechanical energy or mechanical to electric energy.
If we have a crystal one-inch square & that we are alternately applying & removing
electrical energy through two wires connected to the crystal. The crystal will vibrate.

TRANSDUCER

CRYSTAL

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
SOUND

WIRE
VIEW B

VIEW A
If electrical energy being applied through two wires connected to a crystal.The
ability of this crystal to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy is known as
the “piezo electric effect”. Electric energy causes a piezo electric crystal to expand &
contract forming mechanical vibration.

Piezo electric effect:- Ultrasonic transducers work on

the principle of piezo electricity.If single crystal is cooled
below the curie temperature in the presence of an
electric field.The electric dipoles tend to align themselves
in the direction nearest to the applied electric field . The
dipoles cannot return to their original position & the
crystal becomes permanently piezo electric. If the
mechanical stress is now is reversed the voltage
obtained is also reversed.
This conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy is termed as the direct
piezo-electric effect & is used in ultrasonic receivers.
Within a certain range of stress , which depends on the material used the
variation of dipole movement is linear & reversible.
If a voltage is similar polarity to the poling voltage applied to the crystal.
The material expands & if a voltage of opposite polarity is applied the material
contracts.
WAVE GENERATION

Alternating voltage applied to crystal

Crystal expands Crystal contracts

The application of an alternating voltage results in alternate expansion &
contraction of the crystal. This is known as the reverse piezo-electric effect & it is
used in ultrasonic transmitters.

If a crystal is cut perpendicular to an x-axis it produces L-wave. If a crystal is cut

perpendicular to Y-axis it produces S-wave.

If an electric pulses of very high frequency & short duration is applied to the
piezo-electric element the transducer momentarily vibrates & sends a
mechanical wave into the specimen and reflected back from the specimen by
transducers and these mechanical waves converted into electrical pulse.
It is to be noted that the piezo electric material is not made to vibrate at a desired
frequency by applying an a/c voltage of the same frequency to it. Actually an
electric pulse of very high frequency & short duration is applied to the piezo-
electric element in such the same way as tabla or tuning fork is struck such a pulse
is known as excitation pulse. This pulse activates the transducer element & it
vibrates at its natural frequency. The natural frequency depends on the thickness of
the crystal (piezo-electric element)
In general the frequency is given by:
λ
V V
F= T= F=
λ 2 2T

Where V is the velocity of sound in the transducer material &T is the thickness of
the element. Thus higher the frequency thinner is the crystal.
The resonant frequency of a 2cm thick plate of naval brass (V = 4.43 * 105 cm/sec.) is

λ v
t = t =
2 2f
λ 4.43
20 = f = f = 0.111 MHz
2 40
Material For Crystals

Receiver Transmitter Tra./Rec.

1) Quartz- F P P
2) Lithium Sulphate G P G
3) Barium Titanate P G F
4) Polarized Ceramics P G G
Characteristics of ultrasonic probes:
1) Sensitivity: Sensitivity of an ultrasonic test system is the ability to detect the
smallest discontinuity. Sensitivity refers to the amplitude of the amplitude of
electrical voltage generated by the probe depending on the magnitude of
ultrasonic signal impinge on its surface. Hence it determines how small a
defect can be detected. Sensitivity of the probe is measured by the amplitude
of its response to the energy reflected from standard discontinuity (FBH or
SDH)
2) Resolution: Resolution refers to the ability to separate echo from two or
more discontinuities located close together in depth. Very short pulses are
desirable for high resolution. This requires broad bandwidth for low Q factor
probes.
The graph below illustrates the relationship between the central frequency
amplitude & bandwidth.
Here central frequency of transducers is (f0)-4Mhz and Bandwidth(f2-f1)
F0
Q factor of the probe is, Q =
F2-F1
Near field effect:
Amplitude of wave reflected from defects located within the near zone is
affected by the diffraction pattern. It is difficult to determine the size of defects located
in the near field by the amplitude of reflected waves.
D2 HIGHER
N= LOWER
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY

4λ CENTRAL
FREQUENCY
100
AMPLITUDE %)
(

70

50

25

0
1.0 3.0 7.0 10.0
FREQUENCY(MHZ)
 Near Zone/Beam Spread
1. What is the NZ of 4MHz 10mm dia. probe in lead (2000m/s)

D2f 400
N= =
4V 8

2. What would be N2 in steel for a 10mm Ø 4MHz probe

NZ = 16
3. NZ in water is 64mm
Dead Zone

The crystal of the probe is energized by short electrical pulses of a particular pulse
duration & pulse repetition frequency . When the probe is acting as a
transmitter & receiver.The transmission continues until the pulse dies out &
then only it can act as a receiver.
Also even after the electrical pulse is cut off, the crystal because of its inertia
continues to vibrate (ringing). By the time the pulse dies out or the crystal
stops vibrating the energy travels into the material & the distance travelled by
the sound energy within the pulse duration period is known as “dead zone”. It
is represented by broad initial pulse.
Dead zone is the initial envelope of sound displayed on the screen, caused by the
probe ‘ringing’.

To minimize dead zone short pulse can be used &

the internal damping of the probe may be
improved. Or by increasing the frequency of probe.
Dead Zone
Ultrasonic Beam
Due to interference of all these waves a complicated system of maximum &
minimum energy levels can be seen. This is known as ‘Fresnel effect’
This will extend for some distance infront of the transducer.This region is known as
Near Field or Fresnel Zone. In short near zone is the term given to the parallel
section of sound path after leaving the transducer, where the interaction of the
Various wavefronts travelling in opposite directions causes phase changes and
intensity fluctuations
 D2 D2 * F
Near Zone = =
4λ 4V
D = Transducer diameter
λ = Wavelength
V = Velocity of test material
Far Zone/Fraunhofer Zone:
The far zone is the portion of the ultrasonic beam that
extends beyond the near zone and continues until the
ultrasound is attenuated. This area exhibits a relatively
constant drop in ultrasound intensities over its entire length
due to the attenuation characteristics of the material being
inspected.
Beam spread: A discontinuity will produce a maximum
amplitude indication when positioned in the axis of the
beam.The amount of beam spread can be calculated by
following formula,
Sin θ λ θ
2 = 1.22 D
Where, is the Half angle of beam spread
2
A decrease in transducer diameter & or in its frequency will increase the beam
spread of ultrasound in a given material.
Effect of transducer diameter and frequency on sound propagation
Transducer diameter:
Greater the diameter ------------ smaller the beam spread
Greater the diameter ------------ greater the output of energy
Greater the diameter ------------ larger the near zone

Probe frequency:
Higher the frequency ----------- smaller the beam spread
Higher the frequency ----------- larger the near zone
Higher the frequency ----------- smaller the dead zone
Higher the frequency ----------- lower the penetrating power
 KV 1.22 * 1.25 1. What is the transducer half
Sin θ = = = 3.10˚ angle beam spread of a
Df 12.5 * 2.25 1.25cm dia. 2.25MHz
transducer in water (V =
1.25km/sec.)
KV
Sin θ = 0.104 * 80 = 1.22 * V
2. Beam spread of 20 Ø, Df
4MHz probe in certain KV V = 6.850
material is 6˚. Therefore, 6˚ =
beam spread of 20 Ø, 20 * 4
8MHz probe in the same
material will be -
KV
0.1 * 160 =
20 * 4
= 3˚
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
The Cathode Ray Tube : A CRT is essentially an evacuated glass tube. The
cathode filament c is heated electrically & it emits electrons (such emission of
electron due to heating is called thermionic emission). The emerging electrons are
focussed into a thin beam by the focussing coils F & the electrons are accelerated
by a high voltage applied to the anode A. The accelerated electron beam finally
strikes the flat circular end S of the CRT screen & it is coated with a fluorescent
material. The area where the electron beam strikes the screen will be seen as a
lamina spot.

In a flaw detector the horizontal

deflection is used to measure time.
The vertical line is used to measure
the size of the defect.
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

HH plates: deflect the beam horizontally

VV plates: deflect the beam vertically
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
The Flaw Detector -Block Diagram:
1. Pulsar ‘P’ which gives out a high voltage electric pulse of short duration.
2. The electric pulse excites the transducer ‘T’ & the transducer generates a short
pulse of ultrasonic waves.
3. The wave travels into the material under test & gets reflected by a defect or the
back surface. The reflected waves reach back the transducer& get converted
into a electric voltage.
4. The amplifier A amplify this voltage. This will cause a echo on the CRT.
5. The clock or timer ‘C’ synchronizes
* What is Initial Pulse?
A part of the pulse emitted by the pulsar goes through the amplifier & therefore
we get a fairly large vertical deflection ‘IP’ at the start of the horizontal line on
the CRT. This is initial or transmitted pulse.
UFD Block Diagram
Measurement of Sound Intensity:
In CRT screen Y-axis represents the amount of energy reflected & received.
This is shown by echo height.The echo height may be increased or
decreased by gain.
UFD provide two things 1)Depth 2)Height or amplitude or area of reflector
[EFS not actual flaw size]
One single echo does not give information So we have to compare with
another
a) Echo height with ref. to FSH
b) Echo height with ref. to another echo height.
c) Bringing echo to compared known echo height by measuring the
difference in terms of some unit- Gain
As the ratio are likely to be large we use Logarithmic Scale called decibels
 h1 h1
dB = 20 log10 = 10N/20
h2 h2
Multiplication of voltage ratio corresponds to simple addition of dB value.
Commonly used echo height to dB relations are -

Ratios dB
2:1 (100% :50%) 6
4:1 (80%: 20%) 12

10:1(100%:10%) 20
1.25:1 (100%:80%) 2
dB
1. In the far field of normal probe echo amp. of 5mm dia. FBH when hit
perpendicularly gives echo height 80% to FSH. How much will be echo amp.
for 2.5mm dia. FBH? H = 5 H = 80%
1 1

H2 = 2.5 H2 = ?

H2 X22 H2 2.52
H1 X12 80% 52
6.25 * 80
H2 =
25
H2 = 20%
1. An echo amp. Of 100 times can be written as: -
100 = 10 * 10
= 20 + 20
= 40 dB

2. Echo amplification of 60dB results in increase of echo height by: -

60dB = 20dB + 20dB + 20dB
= 10 * 10 * 10
= 1000 times
Amplitude Ratios in dB

H1 db H1 db

H2   H2
 

1.00 0 3.20 10
1.12 1 3.50 11
1.26 2 4.00 12
1.40 3 4.50 13
1.60 4 5.00 14
1.80 5 5.60 15
2.00 6 6.30 16
2.20 7 7.10 17
2.50 8 7.90 18
2.80 9 8.90 19
3.20 10 10.00 20
Block Diagram

There are five basic blocks:-

1) The clock/timer/synchronizer: The clock provides a constant rate of
pulses to be used, as a co-ordinator for all other functions. The number of
these pulses in unit of time is varied by the pulse repetition rate control. The
clock timer provides electrical energy to both the transmitter & sweep
generator.
2) Transmitter: The transmitter will transmit a high voltage pulse of short
duration to the piezo-electric element in the transducer and also provide a
reference indication (called as initial pulse) on the display unit through
receiver/amplifier. The start of the initial pulse is zero.The location of the
initial pulse is not use for calibration purpose,because a time lag exists
between the display of the initial pulse &ultrasound entering the part This lag
is referred to as the “electrical zero to acoustical zero time lag.”
Block Diagram

3) Sweep Generator: This makes the electrons in the indicator unit to move
(sweep) from left to right at a fixed speed forming a sweep line. As it
represents time it is also known as time base line.
4) Amplifier: The receiver in the instrument senses the relatively low voltage
created when the piezo-electric element in the transducer converts received
mechanical energy to electrical energy. The receiver will amplify, filter and
rectify the electrical pulses and pass them to the display unit.
5) Cathode ray tube: The CRT is a device similar to picture tube in a
television set. The CRT consists of a base connector for attaching it to the
circuitry of the instrument and electron gun that generates a stream of
electrons; vertical and horizontal plates that deflect the electrons stream,
producing a vertical and horizontal display; on a phosphorus coated viewing
screen
Equipment controls: Each control on an ultrasonic instrument is in some
way connected to one of these circuits and provides a specific function. The
clock timer operation is varied by the pulse repetition rate control.
Pulse repetition rate: Changing the pulse repetition rate will affect the
amount of time between transmitted pulses. A sufficient amount of time
between pulses is necessary to allow ultrasound to travel through the
specimen being inspected. Spurious indications may be encountered if
the pulse repetition rate is too high for a given material type and
thickness.*
Pulse energy: The transmitter may be affected by several controls. Some
instruments have a pulse energy control that changes the voltage applied to
the piezo electric element. The voltage may range from 200 volts upto and in
excess of 1200 volts. Higher voltage excitation pulses will result in deeper
material penetration.
Damping (pulse length): A very common control on instruments is the damping or
pulse length control. This control will change the duration of the pulse applied to the
piezo-electric element.

Increasing
damping will
decrease the
ringing effect of
the transducer,
thus increasing
near surface
resolution and at
the same time ,
decreasing depth
of material
penetration
Bandwidth: Each transducer emits a range of frequencies. A
2.25MHz transducer, for example will emit a band of ultrasound
over a range of frequencies, centering around 2.25 Mhz.
Bandwidth = f2 - f1 F0
Q=
F2-F1
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC): A distance amplitude correction (DAC)
control is also offered on some instruments. This control will electronically
compensate for attenuation over a given material thickness. This electronic
compensation is used to produce equal amplitude indications from different distances.
Any form of distance amplitude correction (DAC) control is part of the receiver circuit.
Focus/Intensity: Display controls include focus, intensity, & horizontal sweep
movement.
Delay control: Two controls essential to the calibration of the sweep are the delay
and range controls. The delay control will move the display uniformly across the
viewing screen. This allows positioning of indications from calibration reflectors to
desired positions of the sweep.
Range control: The range control provides the necessary expansion and
compression of the sweep. This function is necessary for compensation and
calibration to a specific material velocity and thickness. Both the range and the delay
controls are part of the sweep generator circuit.
Gating controls: Some instruments also provide gating controls. These controls are
used to monitor a specific portion of the sweep. If an indication appears in the gated
area and its amplitude is above (positive gating) or below (negative gating), the set
level, an audible visible, or recording type device will respond. Gating is used to draw
attention to, or record, discontinuity conditions within the material being inspected. In
the negative mode a gate may be used to monitor a back surface indication. The loss
of couplant in this case would cause gate response.

Cables & Adapters:

Cables: Ordinary electrical wire would not work for UT probe cables because the
ordinary wire will pick up electrical interference due to high frequency machines (such
as welding drilling etc) working nearby. The special cable used as probe cable is
called as co-axial cable, in which the electrical voltage is applied to a central
conductor which is surrounded by an insulation. This insulation is surrounded by a
conducting wire mesh is further covered by an insulation.
Connectors: We have seen that the probe cable is attached to the probe & the
instrument by connectors. There are many types of connectors. Some common
types are:
1. Lemo 0
2. Lemo 00
3. BNC (big & small)
4.Microdot (big & small)
5. Tuchel
6. UHF
7. Subvis
Couplants

The purpose of couplant is to provide suitable thin sound path between the
transducer & the test surface. An ideal couplant effectively wets & totally
contacts both surface of the transducer & test part. It also fills & smoothes out
irregularities on the movement of the transducer over the surface. Grease or
heavy oil can be used on rough & vertical surface. Excessive couplant on the
surface is not desirable.

Acoustic impedance of ideal couplant should be between that of crystal &

workpiece, values approaching that of workpiece.

Finally the couplant should be consistent & give effective results.

 Couplants
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER & STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS
The probe is most critical part of the ultrasonic test-system. Its abilities &
limitations define all aspects of UT from design to test specification.
Types of probes:
A) Normal beam probe or straight beam probe:- The beam is perpendicular
to the surface on which it is incident.

The crystal is coated on both sides with thin material conducting layers. The
contact surface -conducting layer is internally connected to the probe case.
These in turn gets earned or grounded through the cable & the instrument. The
metallic conducting layer on the other side or topside is connected to the central
contact of the probe connector.

The crystal & its metallization is rather delicate &

has to be protected against damage & wear
when used on rough work pieces.
Types of Probes
1) Hard wear surface: Probes with thin layer of .coating are called hard
faced probes. A thin layer of very hard material such as ruby or alumina is
bonded to the metallized crystal (at the manufacturing stage). Such probe
gives a long life on smooth surfaces.

2) Wear membrane: Wear membrane probes are designed to be used with a

thin replaceable membrane which is stretched over the probe contact
surface with some oil in between. such probes should never be used
without the membrane. except for an occasional direct light contact & even
in such case it should be slid over the surface, otherwise the metallizing or
even the crystal will be permanently damaged.
3) Delay Block: Probe can also attaching perspex delay block. The lucite
serves to increase near surface resolution. The dead zone of the sound
beam will be in the lucite instead of the material that is being examined.
These block can also be made from temperature. As with detectable
wedges the block must be coupled to the transducer by the use of suitable
couplant. High temperature resistant couplant are also available for the
inspection of hot materials.
As ultrasonic probes have to be damped to achieve better resolution a damping body
is bonded to the back of the crystal. This damping body called “backing member”
should ideally absorb the vibration of the back surface of the piezo-electric element.
Also the energy received by the damping body should be totally absorbed, as
otherwise they will be reflected back to the crystal. To meet these critical
requirements the damping body is usually made of plastic or rubber containing
powdered heavy metals.
Probe are usually specified by size & frequency e.g. 2 MHz, 24 mm dia probe.
B) Angle beam probe:- The beam is at some angle say 45
deg to the normal to the surface.An angle beam probe is
essentially a normal beam probe mounted on a plastic wedge.
This causes the beam to be incident on the job at an angle.The
beam travels into the job at an angle larger than the incident
angle. The cause of this phenomenon (called refraction) & the
fact that this beam within the work piece is of different
character (shear wave)
In one common type of probe, the crystal s directly bonded to the wedge on the one
side & to the backing member on the other. The plastic of which the wedge is made
is usually perspex (also called plexiglass or lucite) & it is a clear transparent
material.
Crystals meant to be used with removable wedge should not be used as normal
beam probes since they are not wear resistant & may perform ultrasonically well on
plastics. For the later reason it is not advisable to use a normal beam probe on
wedge to convert it to an angle beam probe. Note that angle probe sends shear
waves into the work piece, which travel with a velocity of 3250 m/s in steel.
For angle beam probes the angle marked on the probe is not the incident
angle in the wedge but the refracted angle in the steel only. Standard available
angles are 35,45,60, 70, 80 deg.
Due to contact surface being of softer plastic angle beam probes get more easily
worn out. A uniform wear has no noticeable effect on probe performance.
Only the point at which the ultrasonic beam leaves the wedge Beam Index will
slightly change,But non uniform wear will change the wedge & hence beam angle
will change in addition to the beam index, this has to be checked periodically,

Normal Probe Angle Probe

C) Dual Probe: - We have seen that the transmitted pulse (or the initial pulse or the
main bang) occupies some distance on the time base. This distance (in mm of
material), within which defects cannot be detected is called the dead zone. Dead
zone can be eliminated if the transmitted pulse can be prevented from entering the
amplifier, and hence the CRT. This is possible if a separate receiver is employed,
Another way of explaining the dead zone is that the crystal vibrates for some definite
time and during that time it cannot act as a receiver. If we can use a separate
receiver then, echoes can be received even the transmitter is active.
Handling of a transmitter-
receiver combination will be
convenient if the separate
transmitter and receiver are
incorporated in a single
housing. Such probes are
available and they are called
DUAL PROBES, TWIN PROBES, DOUBLE CRYSTAL PROBES, T-R PROBES etc.
• The transmitter and receiver should be obviously of the same frequency. They
must be slightly inclined towards each other. So the reflected beam is to reach
the receiver. This angle which the crystals make with the horizontal is called
the “roof angle”.

• Delay blocks usually of Perspex are added to both the crystals. If the
reflection from the probe front surface reaches the receiver, it will give rise to
spurious signals. This is called cross talk. To prevent cross talk an acoustic
barrier, through which acoustic waves cannot pass, is kept between the two.

• In spite of the acoustic barrier, a small-cross talk echo occurs via, the front
surface of the probe. This, being small, is seen on CRT only at very high
gains. It is sometimes useful for identifying the “zero” for range calibration.
Dual probes were developed to overcome the problem of dead zone.
D) Immersion Probe: - The probes & part both dips into water. So no need of extra
couplant to be used. By adopting curved lenses the sound beam focusing can be
achieved by required depth of defect.
E) Special Probes: -
i) Mosaic Probes, number of small crystal mounted on a single
housing for find out coarser defect like a lamination in a plate &
then used small probe for exact size of defect.
ii) Array Probes or Matrix Probes
iii) Wheel Probes
iv) Paint brush Probes
CALIBRATION STANDARD
The horizontal scale of UFD measure the material thickness or depth of defect.
The vertical scale of UFD measure the approximate size of defect.
The easy way to get more information about the specimen the CRT is to be
compare signals from the specimen with those from one of the two heading
depending on the function of the block.
1) Calibration blocks are used to calibrate the UFD.
e.g. IIW (V1), V2 step wedge.
Calibration blocks are used to test the performance of UFD & probe.
V1 Block
V1 Block
V2 Block
V2 Block
Half Moon Block
Range calibration for normal probe:
• By using Normal beam/straight beam probe calibrate the instrument for
0 to100 mm in steel by using V1 Block
Thickness of test block = 25mm
Total Number of division on main scale = 10
Test Range 100
Scale Factor (K) = =
Total number of division on main scale 10
Back wall echo Beam Path (BP) Scale Factor BP
number (K) Screen Reading =
K
1 25 10 2.5
2 50 10 5 (by delay control)
3 75 10 7.5
4 100 10 10 (by range control)
Normal Beam Range Calibration:
By using normal probe calibrate the instrument to 0 to 100mm using V1 Block. (By
facing 100mm thickness)
Test Range = Thickness of the block
100 mm = 100 mm Scale factor = test range / no. of division = 100 / 10 = 10

Back wall echo Beam Path (BP) Scale Factor BP

number (K) Screen Reading =
K
1 100 10 10
2 200 10 20

Steps:1. Adjust initial echo at 0 div. by delay knob. 4. Adjust 2nd BWE at 10 div. by
range control knob.
2. Adjust 1st BWE at 10 div. by range control knob. 5. Shift 1st BWE at 10 div. by
3. Shift 1st BWE at 0 div. by delay knob. delay knob.
 Calibrate the instrument for 0-25mm by using T/R probe with V1/V2 block.
Scale factor = test range / no. of division = 25 / 10 = 2.5
Back wall echo Beam Path (BP) Scale Factor BP
number (K) Screen Reading =
K
1 12.5 2.5 5 (by delay knob)
2 25 2.5 10 (by range knob)

Steps:1. Adjust initial echo at 0 div. by delay knob.

2. By placing probe on 25mm thk. adjust 1st BWE at 10th div. by range control knob.
3. By placing probe on 12.5mm thk. Shift 1 st BWE at 5th div. by delay knob.
4. Repeat steps nos. 2 & 3 until we get echo on the 5 th div. when placing probe on 12.5 mm
thk. & 1st echo on 10th div. when placing probe on 25mm thk.
(a) Measure the thickness of the given plates.
 Range calibration for angle probe:

• By using angle beam probe calibrate the instrument for 0 to100 mm in steel by
using V2 Block facing 25mm radius.
From V2 block we get reflection from 25mm & 50mm radius.
Total Number of division on main scale = 10
Scale Factor (K) =
Test Range =
100
Total number of division on main scale 10
Back wall echo Beam Path (BP) Scale Factor BP
number (K) Screen Reading =
K
1 25 10 2.5 (by delay control)
2 100 10 10 (by range control)
By cross-checking of above calibration is correct. Facing the probe towards 50mm radius,
we get echo on 5th scale.
REFERENCE STANDARS:
Reference standards are used to set up or standardises the UFD establish
testing sensitivity levels & to evaluate discontinuities. The blocks with the
artificial flaws like notches, side drill holes, flat bottom hole, or percentage of
back wall reflection.
They have two uses: -
1) It standardises the UT system & establishes the sensitivity or gain at which
all the discontinuities of the size specified or larger will be detected.
2) Evaluate the discontinuities by comparing their indication with the
indication received from artificial discontinuities in the similar material.
SDH NOTCHE

BWE
FBH
DGS SCALES
 PD
θ
th
Thicknes
d Pa
θ e am
B
s

Opposite side Adjacent side

Sinθ = Cosθ =
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse

PD d
Sinθ = Cosθ =
Beam Path Beam Path

PD = Beam Path, Sinθ d = Beam Path, Cos θ

Where, PD = Projection Distance d = Depth of defect

 SD

½ SD
θ

s
Thicknes
th
Pa a th
m P
B ea a m
θ ½ Be

Sinθ SD t
Tanθ = Sinθ = Cosθ =
Cos θ BP BP
SD BP Thickness t
Tanθ = X Cosθ = BP =
BP t Cosθ
BP
SD = t Tanθ BP = t secθ
 SD = Skip Distance BP = Beam Path

So, half skip distance = t tanθ half beam path = t secθ

full skip distance = 2t tanθ full beam path = 2t secθ
ULTRASONIC DISPLAY
INDICATION
There are three basic types of visual displays which are commonly used to
evaluate the soundness or quality of a material being tested.
A-Scan 2) B-Scan 3) C-Scan

A-SCAN: Time verses Amplitude.

(Depth & size of defect)
ULTRASONIC DISPLAY
INDICATION

B-SCAN: Cross sectional view. We get depth & extent of defect in the
direction of the probe movement. No information about defect size
reflected energy/height.
ULTRASONIC DISPLAY
INDICATION

C-SCAN: Plan view or top view like RT film. We get size of defect in two
dimension but defect depth does not show
ULTRASONIC DISPLAY
INDICATION

A Scan

B Scan
ULTRASONIC DISPLAY
INDICATION

C Scan
Methods

There are two basic Ultrasonic testing methods.

Contact Testing: In this type of testing the
probe is directly contact with part. The suitable
couplant shall be applied between the part &
probe to propagates sound waves in the part.
Methods

Immersion Testing: In this type of testing the probe & part

is totally immersed in water. No need of extra couplant.
Care must be taken to maintain minimum water gap to
avoid multiple top echo from the part. The minimum water
gap shall be maintain ¼ t + ¼”
where, t is the thickness of the part. The velocity ratio
between water to steel 1:4
 Wear & tear to probe is avoided
 Higher frequencies can be used
 Easy to automate
 Same probe can be used to generate different
beam angles
 Beam can be focused
 Near zone can be contained within water
 Dead zone considerably reduced
 Angle can be varied to match defect
orientation (angulations)
Techniques

Pulse Echo: In this type of technique a short pulse of ultrasonic beam is sent into
the material & get reflected back from the defect or from the back wall of the
material. In this type of technique we get depth & equivalent size of the defect.
Techniques

Resonance Technique: Resonance will occurs only the thickness of a specimen is

equal to a half – wavelength or an exact multiple of half wavelength.
1 V
T= λ F= i.e. T=1/2 λ .λ. 1 1/2 λ. 2 λ
2 2T

Reflected wave

Incident wave

T=1/2 λ

Application: Thickness measurement, Bond testing, Lamination, Inspection

Techniques

Through Transmission: In this type of technique a continuous ultrasound beam is

sent into the material. Any defect will reflect the incident ultrasonic waves & thus
cause reduction in to the transmitted energy, thus the defect is detected by the
reduction in transmitted energy. In this technique, we can not able to find out the
depth & size of the defect.

T R

T R
EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE

Code Requirements: Performance of the Equipment used during an

Ultrasonic Examination is as per ASME sec V.

Horizontal Linearity: It is defined as the signals occurring after equal time

interval should appear with equal spacing from CRT.

The tolerance is 2% of the full screen width. The non-linearity of time-base
arises due to the non-linearity of the sweep voltage. If will give incorrect
depth during testing.
EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE
Vertical Linearity: Maintaining a 2 to 1 ratio at each gain setting is evidence of
vertical linearity. Vertical linearity should be with in K 5% of full screen at each
gain setting. Non-linearity gives incorrect echo height or defect sizes.
Amplitude (Gain) Control linearity dB Control  20% to expected value.

Echo set at % of FSH dB change Echo limit % of FSH

If this does not happen
the dB control 80% 6dB 32 to 48%
calibration (i.e.
80% 12dB 16 to 24%
markings) is not all
right. 40% 6dB 64 to 96%
20% 12dB 64 to 96%

Dead Zone: lower for high frequency.

Sensitivity: The ability to detect small flaw – better with high frequency.
Resolution: Higher the frequency better the resolution.
Selection of test Parameters

1. Type of Material & Chemical composition: Normally for iron & there alloys
no specific problem in UT but austenitic stainless steel & cast iron is having
problem due to large grain size. Large grain size means high scatter.
2. Material History: Casting are generally in-homogeneous & large grain size
better to do after heat treatment. Wrought products (rolled, forge, drawn,
extruded) have finer grain & more homogeneous.
3. Size & Shape of Material: In very thin section it become difficult to resolve
echoes which will be closely spaced, very high thickness may observe
heavily. Very high curvatures may make conventional manual scan
ineffective. Complex shapes such as gears, crankshafts etc. may make UT
ineffective. Surface roughness also affects UT.
4. Expected type of defect into the material: Planner defects are easily
detected compared to three dimensional defect. Defect closed to surface
not detected by in UT but defect which are breaking to the surface can be
detected.
Selection of test Parameters

5. What is sensitivity to be achieved: Its depend upon applicable standard.

Sensitivity high with higher frequency.
6. Frequency of the Probe depend upon grain structure of material. Coarse
grain structure like cast iron, produces grass echo on to the CRT so better
use low frequency in order of (0.5 MHz) or another way used highly damped
probes called as wide band probe.
7. Size of the Probe: Use larger diameter for more powers & also for faster
inspection & more coverage area. For smaller sizes or curved surfaces
used smaller dia. probe.
8. Type of the Probe: Single & Double Probe used for to detect near surface
defect & low thickness measurement.
Selection of test Parameters
9. Beam Angle:
a) Used lower angle for thicker material & higher angle for thinner thickness
material.
b) Geometry may limit particular angle.
c) Weld preparation angle – to hit fusion face perpendicularly
(90 - ½ weld edges prepared angle) or (90 – t).
10. Scanning Direction: Ultrasonic beam shall be hit perpendicularly to the
expected type of defect.
11. Time of Inspection: Better after hit treatment.
12. Limiting angle: For circumferential scanning in pipes and tubes.
13. Transfer correction: When the reference block is available with same material
composition & size we have to make a transfer correction adjustments.
Selection of test Parameters
Limiting Angle:
When the ration of thick (d) to diameter (D) is over 0.2 or 20% you cannot test
ID defect by 45˚, 60˚ & 70˚
d/D > 0.2 or 20%
ID 3
OD = 6”, thick = 1½” Sin θ =
-1
= θ = 30˚
OD 6
d/D = 0.25
A 8” pipe & ½” thickness is to be scanned what will be the angle & full skip & full
beam path?
D =8” d = 0.5” d/D = 0.555/8 = 0.06

ID 1”
Sin θ =
-1
= = 0.125
OD 8”
Selection of test Parameters

2t 40
Sin θ = 1 - =
D 100
θ = 1 – 0.4
Calculate the beam angle
which just grazes the bore of
Sin θ = 0.6
a 100mm of pipe having a θ = 37˚
20mm wall thickness
θ = 35˚
d/D = 0.2
Fs = 2.2 * fs = 30, 60
FB = 1.3 * FB = 32 , 64
Limiting Angle

When using
shear waves,
if the ratio of
thickness (d),
to diameter,
(D) is over 0.2 1½”
or 20%, the
sound beam ¾”
will not touch
the inner
diameter (for
45º, 60º & 70º) 6” dia.
d d
Ratio = .125 Ratio = .25
D D
T R

Reference Block dB = 24

T R

Test Piece dB = 28

Transfer correction (dB) = 4

 Defect sizing :- It should be borne in mind that in UT, the echo height shows us
the reflected energy. The echo height to be representative of area of reflector,
the center of the reflector should be on beam axis lying perpendicular such as
FBH.
The natural reflector in a material is unlikely to be of a nature of FBH so when a
defect is sized it should be clearly understood that it is Equivalent Flaw Size
(EFS) and not Actual Flaw Size.
Defects can be said to be small or large. Large reflector is the one whose
diameter is greater than the beam cross section at the testing range. Small
reflector is encircled at the testing range by the beam cross section.
Defect evaluation is depend on the:
1. Location 4. Type
2. Size 5. Orientation flaw
3. Shape
SHRINKAGE LAMINATION

PIPING CRACK
Large Reflector :
Half Value/6dB drop Method :- Mostly used for plotting of lamination boundaries
in plate testing. The echo indication as compared to the maximum indication,
decreases by 6 dB if half of the sound beam strikes the reflector and half of it
passes by. If by moving the probe, we look for the 6dB drop points, then the axis
of the beam (centerline of the probe) points directly to the edge of the reflector.
20 dB drop Method:- Used to find the edge of discontinuity by plotting the points
where the indication of discontinuity drops to 10% (20dB) of the maximum echo.
Small Reflector :-
Equivalent Reflector Size:- Blocks with FBH to compare echo heights.
DGS diagram :- Distance, Gain & Size method is also based on FBH.
Generally for a small reflector, instead of sizing a defect, practical method used is
“go/No go” indication. That is drawing Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Curve on the screen called as Reference Level. Any indication above this is
unacceptable.
 DAC Curve for Normal Probe:-
DAC Curve can be plotted with Normal Probe generally using a Side Drilled Hole
(SDH) offering minimum three distances from different metal distances.
(FBH cam also be used for DAC Curve plotting and there have to be at least
three holes at different depths.)
1

2
1 2 3
100% DAC
- 6 dB
Amp

50% DAC

Distances
 DAC Curve for Angle Probe:-
DAC Curve can be plotted with Angle Probe generally using a Side Drilled Hole
(SDH)/notches offering minimum three distances from different metal distances.
1

1 2 3
2
100% DAC
- 6 dB
Amp

50% DAC

Distances
Irrelevant Indications:- The echoes presented on CRT are not always the
discontinuities echoes. Because of Mode conversion and some other reasons,
there are likely to be undesired indications which cannot be avoided. So the
operator should be able to differentiate between desired and undesired
(irrelevant) indications. They are classified in different groups.

Electrical Interference:- Noise appears on the screen – can be caused due to

faulty coaxial cable or by the defective amplifier of UFD at high gain. In mains
operated UFD, it might be additionally caused due to the electrical furnaces or
welding equipment being connected to the same power line. All these are easily
identifiable and thus can be neglected during testing.
 Probe Indications:- Loose crystal can cause prolonged ringing/ widening Initial
pulse/increasing Dead Zone. In Angle probes reflection from plastic wedge can
be seen near IP, they will remain on the screen even if probe is lifted.

Surface of the material :- In TR probe cross talk echo is an example of this type
of irrelevant indication.
The surface waves
traveling in all directions
from Normal probe on a
fine surface, can be
reflected from the edge
and produce an echo
and be identified by
pressing an oily finger in
the path of surface
wave.
Reflection:- In NP when the probe is coupled to a narrow & long work piece, the
side wall generates additional echoes due to mode conversion from longitudinal
to transverse and back to probe as longitudinal. As the travel time is longer
because of reduced velocity of transverse wave, these echoes appear after the
1st BWE.
Shape of the Work piece:- In the specimens of different shapes with fillets &
corners, or in rectangular specimens with internal bores, it might be difficult to
predict the Irrelevant Indications. To differentiate them, examine the work piece
from more than one surface and with different angle probes.
In testing
round bars
diametrically,
there is a
triangle
reflection
probe, the
same
phenomenon
is observed
due to the
‘Roof Angle’
required in
mounting of
the crystals
Material Structure:- It
plays an important role
while testing. A large
forging with low losses
(very fine grained) may
show ‘Ghost echoes’.
Castings (not heat
treated) show a coarse
structure giving a noise
on the screen. In certain
materials the direction of
the sound beam with
respect to the direction of
oriented grain structure
also needs to be
considered.
Couplant:- Couplant flaw indications
may be noticed when using surface
wave probes or angle probes with a
high sensitivity.
Most of Irrelevant Indications outlined
above are inherent in Ultrasonic test
method itself and there may not be
special improvements to overcome
them. So one must be able to test
the work piece effectively by
neglecting these Irrelevant
Indications.
Application of UT

1. Thickness measurements: UT is used to measure the thickness of plate,

pipes, tubes & vessels for corrosion & erosion
2. Velocity measurements: By UT we can measure the velocity of unknown
material if thickness is known.
3. Bond Testing: UT checked the bond between rubber liners & steel in tanks.
4. Flaw Detection: UT is used to detect the defect in plates, pipes, tubes, welds,
casting, forging etc.
Limitation of UT:

UT is impractical due to course grain structure of the material, like, cast, iron &
austenitic stainless-steel.

When the part shape is odd or non-parallel, it is very difficult to test by UT

BOND TESTING
UT of Plate
Type of defect: Lamination
2” Location: Centre
Probe: Normal Probe
9” x 6”
Scanned Area: All edges 2” & grid
lines 9”x 6”
Forging/Rolled Products/Extrusion
Products

Type of defect:

1) Pipe/Piping
Location: Centre
Probe: Normal Probe
Scanned Area: 360 º

2)Forging Bursts:
Location – Internal/External
Probe – Normal Probe

3)Non-metallic Inclusion:
Location – Any location
Probe – Normal Probe
UT of Pipe

Type of defect:

Cracks:
Location – Internal
Probe – Normal Probe/Angle probe
UT of Square Bar

Type of defect:

1) Pipe/Piping
Location: Centre
Probe: Normal Probe
Scanned Area: Two Adjacent side

2) Cracks:
Location – Internal/External
Probe – Normal/Angle probe

3)Non-metallic Inclusion:
Location – Any location
Probe – Normal Probe
UT of casting

Grain structure coarse used low frequency probe

(0.5 to 2.5MHz)

Type of defects:

1)Shrinkage cavities –
Location – change of section (heavy & light)
Probe – Normal/Angle Probe

2)Cracks/Hot tears-
Location – Change of section
Probe – Normal Probe/Angle Probe

3)Porosity -
Location – Internal
Probe – Normal Probe/Angle Probe
Weld Defects

1. Lack of penetration:
location – at the root
Probe – angle probe
Type of echo indication – Sharp
3 Beam is less than half V path
5
Scanning – Both side of weld
4
2 2. Lack of Fusion:
Location – At the side wall or in between
layers
1
Probe – Angle probe
Type of echo indication – Sharp
6 3. Crack :
Location – In weld/in HAZ
(long/transverse/crater crack)
Probe – Angle probe
Type of echo indication – Sharp
Weld Defects

4. Porosity:
Location – Any where in weld
Probe – Normal/Angle Probe
3 Type of indication – Multiple echo
5

4 5. Slag:
2 Location – Any where in weld
Probe – Normal/Angle Probe
1 Type of echo indication – Broad & Multiple
6. Excess Penetration:
Location – At the root
6
Probe – Angle probe
Type of echo indication – Sharp
beam path is more than half V Path
Weld Testing
SD

½ SD

Thickness
ath
P a th
m P
Bea a m
½ Be
Various Types of Weld Joints
Weld Testing

Angle Beam Calculator

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2
Partial Range Calibration.
Calibrate the equipment in partial range from 80 to 105mm

a) The difference between the starting point & end point (105-80=25)
b) Calibrate test range for 0-25mm by using V1 Block
c) Calculate which BWE can be seen in above range (4th BWE i.e. 100mm)
d) Screen reading (100-80=20mm) on 25mm FSR will be 20/25=8th division

e) Shift the pattern with delay control till 4th BWE from 25mm thick block is at
8th division
 Partial Range Calibration.
Test Range 80 – 105 t = 25
1) 105 – 80 = 25 25
100 – 80 = 20 100
20
= 0.8 0.8 * 10 = 8th div
25
85 – 80 = 5 5
=2
91 – 80 = 11 2.5
100 – 80 = 20 11 = 4.4
2.5
20 = 8
2.5
 2) 0.2t – 1.2t 3) 0.5t – 1.5t
1.2t – 0.2t = 1t 1.5t – 0.5t = 1t
1t – 0.2t = 0.8t 1t – 0.5t = 0.5t
T=8 T=5

1) From 40mm thick plate the
echo pattern on CRT shows
on 1st, 5th & 9th div. The
CRT range is set for a range
of?
2) From 30mm thick plate for even
pattern on CRT shows on 2nd, 5th
& 8th div. The CRT range is ser for
a range of?

40 80 120 30 60 90
1 5 9 2 5 8 30
40 3
10 – 110 mm
4
30 - 130
Incoming wave is long at angle  outgoing wave is from at an angle B. V1 long wave in
steel 5920 m/sec. V2 trans wave in steel 3250 m/sec.
 + B = 90˚ Sin  V1
=
B = 90˚ -  Cos  V2
Sin B = Cos 
61˚
5920 29˚
tan  = 3250 = 1.82 29˚

 = 61˚
B = 90 – 61 =29˚ This means that incoming long wave traveling at 61˚ will
be converted into 29˚ snear wave & vice versa.
 Calibration in Reduced Projection Distance.
a) Calibrate the equipment in reduced projection distance in 0-100 mm by
angle probe with 60˚/45˚ using V2
Echo Beam Projection distance Scale reading Scale reading for reduced PD
No. Path = BP X Sinθ "SR" in main Div (Beam Index) X =12mm

1 25 17.5 1.8 0.6

2 100 70 7 5.8
Calibration in Depth.
a) Calibration the equipment in depth 0-100mm by angle probe 60˚/45˚ using V2.
Echo No. V Path Depth = BP X CoSθ Scale reading
1 25 12.5 1.25
2 100 50 5
Calibration in Projection Distance:
Test range: 0-100mm in projection distance for transverse wave in steel. Angle of
refraction = 450
Calibration block – V2 facing 25mm radius

Echo No. Beam Path Projection Distance Scale Radius

1 25mm 17.5mm 1.8 div
2 100mm 70 mm 7 div

Scale reading for reduced (PD)
(with 12mm ‘X’ value)
17.5 – 12 = 05.5 = 0.6
70 – 12 = 58 = 5.8
E.g.: Calibrate the equipment in reduce
projection distance 0-200 mm by 700,
Angle probe using V2 level block facing
50mm quadrant.
Examples:

1) The Ultrasonic Flaw Detector is calibrated for 0-150mm in ‘Surface Distance’

range using a 600 angle beam probe. A defect indication was obtained at
surface distance of 70mm. If the thickness of the plate tested was 30mm, the
depth of the defect would be –
Range = 0-150 BP 70mm θ = 60˚
actual BP = 80mm depth = 40mm
60-40mm = 20mm depth

2) The UFD is calibrated for 0-150mm in depth range using a 60˚ angle beam
probe. A defect indication was observed obtained at 70mm beam path, the
thickness of the plate was 30mm, the surface distance of defect will be –
Range = 0-150 θ = 60˚ BP = 70
Surface distance = 121mm
Calibration in depth (examples):
Test range: 0-100mm in depth
Angle of refraction = 60˚, Calibration Block = V2 facing 25mm quadrant

Echo No. V Path Depth = BP * Cosθ Scale Radius

1 25 12.5 1.25 div
2 100 50 5 div

Calibration for equipment in depth value in 0-200mm by using V2 block facing

50mm radius using 70˚ Angle Probe.
1. At an incident angle of 10˚ longitudinal energy is transmitted from tap water
into a transmitted of silver & steel what is the angle of refracted energy in the
steel?
VC (tap water) = 1.5 * 103 m/sec
VC (laminate of silver) = 3.6 * 103 m/sec
VC (Steel) = 5.9 * 103 m/sec.
Sin 10 1.5
VL = 2.76 cm/sec * 105 = θ = 25˚
Sin θ 3.6
Sin 25˚ 3.6
= θ = 43.8˚
Sin θ 5.9
 2. Calculate the refracted angle of transverse wave in the low alloy steel forging
with a 37˚ plate wedge?
3. S S
Sin 43.45˚ 3.12
= θ = 45.39˚ Cladding
Sin θ 3.23
Low Alloy steel Forging
Determine the refracted angle of transverse
wave in SS cladding with wedge of 37˚ VL = 5.66 * 105
cm/sec
Sin 37˚ 2730 Vt = 3.12 * 105 cm/sec
= θ = 43.45˚
Sin θ 3 .12 VL = 5.85 * 105 cm/sec.
4. What angle should the plastic Vt = 3.23 * 105 cm/sec.
wedge be cut in order to induce a Sin θ 2730
45˚ compression wave into the = θ = 19.94˚
cladding from the clad surface Sin 37˚ 5.66
Defects

CRACK PIPING PITTING

INCLUSION POROSITY CORROSION

 ULTRASONIC TESTING REPORT
Report No.: DATE :

CUSTOMER : W. O. NO :

PROJECT : Date of Test :

PUMP TYPE : Place Of Test :

Part : Part No. : 340.71

Drawing No. : Rev.: QTY. :

Material : IDN No. : Sr. No. 3

MSP No : Revision : Step No. :

MIP : Revision : Step No. :

Instrument Type : Einstein II.

Beam : Normal & Angle Beam 600

Frequency : 4 MHz, 10 mm  & 4 MHz 8x9 mm 600

Amplification : Refer Attachment

Range : Refer attachment

Coupling : Oil & Grease

Instructions : As per UT Examination Procedure ZN 9914-4 Part 4 Rev. 1 & US 4 03329.

Applied Method : As per UT Examination Procedure ZN 9914-4 Part 4 Rev. 1 & US 4 03329.

Acceptance Standard: Section III, NF 5211, 1977 Edition & ZN 9914-4 Part 4. Rev. 1

Area of Test : Circumferential weld joints of round & elliptical side & lifting lugs portion.

Result : Refer attachment.

Test Performed by : Mr. Tushar Brahme of Radiant Quality Services ASNT NDT Level II, Pune

XYZ Radiant Quality Services XYZ XYZ

Signature/Stamp

Date
UT FORMULA